Student: Erin Scheibe
Graduation date: May 2015
Type: Concentration (single major)
Date approved: November 2012
Summary
Over forty percent of the globe is under arid or semi-arid conditions, and water irrigation for agriculture in these areas is sometimes necessary due to the unpredictability of rain (Boutraa, 2010). Today, climate change brings in extra trouble and insecurity for farmers because of higher temperatures, decreased moisture, and changing rainfall patterns (Dubois et al, 2011). Because of a growing demand for food all over the world, future agriculture must be more productive to meet increasing populations, yet water is restricted in dry climates so irrigation and agriculture must also be more efficient and sustainable (Dubois et al, 2011). Rain-fed crops rarely succeed in dry areas, so water is withdrawn from aquifers, streams, and lakes to help ensure success for agriculture, which is especially important for countries still developing to relieve food scarcity and poverty (Dubois et al, 2011). Yet water development projects sometimes raise disputes over the impacts of irrigation technology, as well as water property rights issues (Cotula, 2008). Not only is water needed to supplement agricultural needs, but there are domestic, industrial, hydroelectric, and biophysical demands as well, therefore state legislation enters the picture to shape the way water is allocated (Cotula, 2008). This allocation of water may cross international boundaries, but failed cooperation among countries will produce insufficient arrangements that lead to imbalanced sharing of groundwater or unequal distribution between upstream and downstream river consumers (Dubois et al, 2011). Within a country, the political decisions made about water distribution and irrigation have an effect on issues such as supplying the needs of crops, factories, or households, but the decisions also shape environmental situations. Land transformation due to poor irrigation policies in many countries may “invariably reduce biodiversity and render the lands involved susceptible to salinization,” which is often irreversible (Vaux, 2012).
Misguided policies are different depending on the country, for example in the Klamath Basin, located in eastern Oregon and the northern part of California, the farmers, power companies, indigenous people, and domestic users all compete for access to rivers and water, but many of the fish that inhabit the rivers have been put on the Endangered Species Act, therefore policy makers are not always required to take into consideration the “economic and social impacts from species management decisions” (Braunworth et al, 2003). On the other hand, in many developing nations such as the countries bordering the Saharan desert, there is often too little regulation due to a lack of money to research the impacts that poor irrigation or agricultural techniques have on the land (Hinman et al, 1992). Like faulty irrigation systems, the overgrazing of livestock or the removal of natural vegetation for agriculture also damage the terrain (Hinman et al, 1992). When soil is harmed in dry lands, water infiltration and retention are the biggest problems farmers face, and it is usually only when restoration projects are financially feasible that farmers can take initiative to acquire better irrigation technologies or agricultural methods to improve their quality of soil (Bainbridge, 2007). Also, since the water demand of plants varies depending on the species and the weather, farmers must find crops that demand little water or think of ways to shelter the crops from the sun (Bainbridge, 2007).
Money may need to be spent to improve irrigation technologies, new policies may need to be executed to prevent soil damage or loss of biodiversity, and international distribution conflicts may need to be settled in order to solve property rights problems, yet every semi-arid and arid region around the world is unique so there is never one way to solve these issues. There are many players in the game, and while agricultural irrigation is sometimes vitally important in securing food production for expanding populations, one still must take into account all of the different water needs. It is essential as an environmental studies student to explore the complex situations surrounding irrigation from many different viewpoints and disciplines. Investigating the gains and losses of irrigation from every angle will help dissect the issues thoroughly, and thereupon gain a new and better understanding of the frameworks that underlie the situations.
References
Bainbridge, David A. A guide for desert and dryland restoration: new hope for arid lands. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2007.
Boutraa, Tahar. “Improvement of Water Use Efficiency in Irrigated Agriculture: A Review.” Journal of Agronomy 9, no. 1 (March 2010): 1–8.
Braunworth, William et al. Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin. Corvallis: Oregon State University Extension Service, 2003.
Cotula, Lorenzo. “The Property Rights Challenges of Improving Access to Water for Agriculture: Lessons from the Sahel.” Journal of Human Development 9, no. 1 (March 2008): 5–22.
Dubois, Olivier et al. The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: Managing Systems at Risk. Hoboken: EarthScan, 2011.
Hinman, Wiley et al. The plight and promise of arid land agriculture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.
Shanan, L. “The Impact of Irrigation.” Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley, Chichester (1987): 115–131.
Vaux Jr., Henry. “Water for Agriculture and the Environment: The Ultimate Trade-off.” Water Policy 14 (2012): 136–146.
Questions
- Descriptive: What types of irrigation, farming methods, and crops are found in semi-arid and arid lands? What water resource management policies and strategies are in place for semi-arid and arid regions? Are there any that are similar throughout these regions despite differences in history, political systems, or economic stability?
- Explanatory: How does irrigation in semi-arid and arid regions add to ecological dilemmas such as soil erosion, salinization, loss of biodiversity, or runoff? Why are varied forms of irrigation and agriculture present in locations with similar dry climates? Do the levels of economic development, state capacity, need for hydroelectric energy, or other water demands impact the chosen forms of irrigation and agriculture?
Concentration courses
- ENVS 490 (Digital Field Scholarship, 4 credits), spring 2013. In this course I gained experience in spatial analysis and communication through mobile applications, Garmin devices, ArcGIS, and GeoCommons. My course project involved the completion of shareable interactive maps depicting land use and settlement/population changes over the last 40 years in the Ezulwini Valley, Swaziland. This course allowed me to explore more deeply the ways in which geospatial tools facilitate research. The skills learned in this course can now support me in further research concerning resource-use or agricultural irrigation in dry regions.
- ENVS 499 (Independent Study, 4 credits), summer 2013, swaziland. I was able to complete an independent study project concerning water quality in agricultural runoff catchments surrounding Malkerns. My research involved water testing, spatial analysis, interviews, and policy research in order to gauge current water quality in agricultural catchments, determine the views farmers had about pesticide and fertilizer use and runoff, and become more aware of Swazi policies and regulations related to agricultural runoff. Although Swaziland isn’t an arid or semi-arid region, many of the issues that develop with irrigation in Swaziland are not unique to zones with its similar sub-tropical climate. The country experiences drought and erratic weather alike to dry areas, so it is appropriate that this independent study project that deals with agricultural irrigation in Swaziland counts as one of my concentration courses. I wanted to become more acquainted with the problems that Swaziland could be facing due to the implementation of large-scale irrigation schemes. The project ended up helping me understand agricultural irrigation and everything irrigation encompasses (like runoff) for my concentration better.
- ENVS 200 (Situating the Global Environment, 4 credits), summer 2013. This course taken while abroad in Swaziland revolved around the Ezulwini Valley Environmental Health Assessment (EHA). I and the other participants on the Swaziland overseas program conducted an EHA looking at water, energy, and waste disposal practices in the four communities we volunteered in within Ezulwini Valley. We completed household level survey work to produce a paper framing the resource impacts and challenges that households in the four communities have accessing basic resources. This course facilitated in my ability to carry out research and gave me a greater understanding for situating environmental problems.
- SOAN 249 (The Political Economy of Food, 4 credits), fall 2014. This class explores how food is produced around the world and will give me a foundational understanding of the ways agriculture connects to consumers, farmers, governments, and biophysical environments across the globe.
Arts and humanities courses
- HIST 261 (Global Environmental History, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.
- PHIL 215 (Philosophy and the Environment, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.