Student: Nicole Godbout
Graduation date: May 2020
Type: Area of Interest (double major)
Date approved: November 2017
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Summary
My concentration considers the potential of various community-based forest conservation techniques in East Africa. In recent years, many East African countries have pushed for the devolution of natural resources from a centrally located state to non-governmental bodies, such as grassroots organizations and communities living near or in the resource (Banana 2008). This evolved from the view of the state’s failure in management of the forests. The conditions of these failures will be discussed below, but include the inability of government agencies to monitor land use of forests, and inability to enforce laws and policies, as well as the exploitation of resources for personal gain by members of rural communities and government officials (Meinzen-Dick, R. and Knox, A. 1999). I will situate my research in the original three partner states of The East African Community (EAC), Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. The EAC is an intergovernmental organization with similar forest management goals, and has recently enacted Regional Forestry Policy to adopt “common policies for conservation and management of natural forests” (Biodiversity & Forests). I will explore the ways community-based conservation methods benefit the forests, people, and region as a whole both now and in the future.
Forests are integral to the ecological and human systems of these countries, and their mismanagement could have irreversible effects on both. East African forests are primarily savanna and coastal woodlands, montane forests, mangrove and acacia forests, and tropical rain forests (Winterbottom 2006). Forests are often categorized as primary, secondary, or planted. Primary forests have experienced no significant human disruption to their ecological processes, while secondary forests have been changed in some way, normally through logging or agricultural practices (Butler 2012). Secondary forests have potential to return to the state of primary forest through reforestation. Planted forests, often called plantations in East Africa, occur by afforestation, the process of planting trees in barren land to create a new forests. Around a quarter of forests today remain in their primary state (FAO 2016). In Africa, primary forests continue to decline as planted forests canopy cover increases by over 1% a year (FAO 2016). East African countries often have hundreds-of-thousands of hectares of planted forests (FAO 2016). Secondary and planted forests have less biodiversity than primary forests. Their continued depletion has serious effects. East Africa claims 10 of the 24 recognized biodiversity hot-spots (Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment 2014). Mismanagement of forests is a major threat to this biodiversity, which causes land degradation by soil erosion, desertification, and loss of arable land (Misana 1999). According to the Secretariat of the EAC, forests represent a “source of income… provide goods and services ranging from fuel wood for energy, timber for construction, soil erosion, water catchment, conservation, and recreational opportunities” (EAC 2017). Additionally, forests are a large carbon sink. Without them, carbon levels in the atmosphere would increase, contributing to the effects of climate change such as rising sea levels, increased days of drought, and floods, all of which disproportionately affect African woodland and coastal communities (Reuters 2017). Deforestation and forest conversion also causes billions of dollars in revenue. It is estimated that by not collecting royalties and undervaluing forest services, Tanzania has lost up to 58 million in revenue (Felixa and Gheewalaa 2011). Ultimately, these unsustainable forestry practices hinder economic development.
Deforestation in EAC countries is due to the various pressures that increasing populations place on forests and the inability of current management to address these new pressures. In Tanzania, deforestation primarily results from the use of biomass for 90% of the country’s total energy consumption; of which 80% of Tanzanians depend on (Felixa and Gheewalaa 2011). Kenya is classified among the countries with the lowest forest cover with around 1-5% of the total land area (FAO 2016). Rapid decline in forests is attributed to growing needs of agricultural land. Uganda has half the forest cover of Tanzania and faces both increased need for agriculture land and demand for fuel. In addition to the inability of the government to adequately address energy and food needs of growing populations, many East African government officials exploit the resource for their personal gains. For example in Tanzania, the manipulation of policies by Tanzanian government officials occur in concert with “domestic and foreign private sector interest” (Milledge, S.A.H., et. al 2007).
Community-based conservation (CBC) is one solution for these forest management issues in East Africa. CBC, as defined by Western and Wright, “includes natural resources or biodiversity protection by, for, and with the local community” (Western 1994). CBC attempts to conserve ecosystems and improve the livelihoods of people immediately depending on the resources. In East Africa, CBC is needed to work alongside governmental solutions. While regional policy provides blanket requirements for all forest management, CBC policies are unique to the needs of individual communities. For example in Tanzania, all land is owned by the government, thus, CBC must be structured around the lack of legal ownership of forests (Tanzania Investment Act 1997). The World Bank also recognizes the elevated importance of resource devolution and community management in African countries due to corruption and mismanagement stemming from a history of colonialism (Blomley 2009). This pairing of regional government policy with CBC efforts shifts attention to processes at multiple levels. Wicked problems require clumsy solutions (Hulme 2009). One possible community-based conservation effort for forests in East Africa is Participatory Forest Management (PFM). PFM results in a more democratic method of forest governance that responds to both the biophysical needs of the forest and the needs of the people (Blomley 2009). I will examine how regional CBC guidelines do or could be an effective community response to forest management in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. My International Affairs major and Political Economy minor provide a perspective of power and politics on East African forest management; additionally, my experience studying abroad in Tanzania in Fall 2018 will provide first hand experience communities living in, near, or influenced by forests.
References
Banana A., Ongugo P., et. all. 2008. “Resource, recourse and decisions: Incentive structures in forest decentralization and governance in East Africa.” International Forest Resources and Institutions.
“Biodiversity & Forests”. East African Community. Accessed November 2017.
Blomley, T. and Iddi S. 2009. “Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania: Lessons learned and experiences to date.” Director of Forestry and Beekeeping, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, United Republic of Tanzania.
Butler, R. 2012. “Types of Rainforests.” Mongabay. Accessed November 2017.
The East African Community (EAC). 2017. Comments by the East African Community Secretariat on the Draft Options and Building Blocks for the 2017-2030 Strategic Plan For the International Arrangement on Forests.
Felixa, Mwema and Gheewalaa, Shabbir H. 2011. “A Review of Biomass Energy Dependency in Tanzania.” 9th Eco-Energy and Materials Science and Engineering Symposium.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO). 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment: How are the world’s forests changing? Second Addition.
Hulme, Mike. 2009. Why We Disagree about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, Inaction and Opportunity. Cambridge University Press.
Meinzen-Dick, R. and Knox, A. 1999. “Collective Action, Property Rights, and Devolution of Natural Resource Management: A Conceptual Framework.” Workshop draft.
Milledge, S.A.H., Gelvas, I. K. and Ahrends, A. 2007. “Forestry, Governance and National Development: Lessons Learned from a Logging Boom in Southern Tanzania.” TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa / Tanzania Development Partners Group / Ministry of Natural Resources of Tourism, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Misana, Salone. 1999. “Deforestation in Tanzania: A Development Crisis?” Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA).
Reuters. 2017. “Tanzania Prepares for Worsening Effects of Climate Change.” Voice of America.
Tanzania Investment Act. 1997.
Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment, United Republic of Tanzania. 2014. “Fifth National Report on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.”
Western, D. and Wright M. 1994. Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. Island Press.
Winterbottom B., and Eilu G., for International Resources Groups. 2006. “Uganda Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment.” United States Agency for International Development.
Questions
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- Descriptive: What have been major social conflicts and debates on forest use and management in East Africa, and who has historically had powerful roles in this?
What is community-based conservation and how does it differ from government management of forests? What are the existing CBC efforts in East Africa?
What is the history of deforestation and afforestation in East Africa? How has deforestation and conversion of primary and secondary forests changed over time? - Explanatory: Why is CBC a resource management policy often applied to East African countries? What historical or political forces resulted in the need for CBC?
What role has the legacy of colonialism played in how natural resources are managed in East Africa today?
How and by whom are CBC efforts developed and implemented? How do community and government interests influence forest management? - Evaluative: How well are resources managed through government policies in East Africa? Who wins and who loses?
How are the livelihoods of people living in and around forests affected by their poor management? What are the benefits and costs of current management policy?
What is the distribution of deforestation and forest conversion impacts on different populations? Do these impacts vary between rural and urban populations, men and women, and/or children and adults - Instrumental: How can East African communities transition from current forest management approaches to CBC?
How can we best use an ecological and economic approach in CBC forest management to improve management of forests for all individuals and the forest itself?
What local forestry practices are needed to curb rural populations role in deforestation?
Are CBC efforts more or less effective than state policy in conserving natural resources?
- Descriptive: What have been major social conflicts and debates on forest use and management in East Africa, and who has historically had powerful roles in this?
Arts and humanities courses
- HIST 261 (Global Environmental History, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.
- PHIL 215 (Philosophy and the Environment, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.