Student: Maya Bon
Graduation date: May 2018
Type: Concentration (single major)
Date approved: November 2015
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Summary
Rewilding, a comparatively recently developed method of ecological restoration, addresses biodiversity loss and land-cover change. Proposed by biologists Michael Soulé and Reed Noss, rewilding focuses on the creation of interconnected reserves harboring large carnivores. Rewilding incorporates animal reintroduction, reforestation, and habitat restoration. The meaning of rewilding changes contextually. In Europe, rewilding has meant land abandonment and management through species reintroduction, while in North America it has meant Pleistocene megafauna reintroduction and habitat management through the “3 Cs” (cores, carnivores, and corridors) (Jørgensen 2014). Being imperative to the vitality of an ecosystem, large carnivores necessitate the expansiveness of nature reserves, enabling migratory patterns through interconnected land masses (Soulé and Noss 1998). The removal of large predators from an ecosystem affects the entire food chain, eventually impacting plant biomass (Cardinale et al 2012). Rewilding labels species integral to an ecosystem “keystone species.” While most keystone species are large carnivores, some are herbivores.
Rewilding is embedded within a lineage of 20th and 21st century conservation efforts. Chronologically, the first major environmental movement was Monumentalism, which hoped to preserve nature’s pristine beauty, stressing the importance of nature and certain species. Rewilding incorporates Monumentalism’s intrinsic value of nature and of species vital to an ecosystem. Next, Biological Conservation recognized the importance of ecosystems not as beautiful as those appreciated by Monumentalists. Factors defining Biological Conservation later adopted by rewilding include the importance of carnivores and natural disturbances to an ecosystem’s structure, diversity, and function. Further, Island Biogeography and Conservation Biology highlighted the importance of habitat size for species diversity, outlining the inverse relationship between the rate of extinction in a park and the size of that park. Rewilding embraces this methodology, as well as the notion that wide-ranging species cannot survive in compact demographic locations.
One example of rewilding is Pleistocene Park, a 65 square mile area in the Republic of Yakutia dedicated to reinstating an ancient mammoth steppe ecosystem led by Sergey A. Zimov. Prior to the Pleistocene extinctions, Zimov believes most ecosystems were in relative equilibrium and that the recreation of this steppe ecosystem is imperative. Since 1989, Zimov has attempted to test how large herbivores create and maintain grassland ecosystems, aiming to prove that the late Pleistocene extinctions were not caused entirely by climate shifts, but by the introduction of advanced human hunting techniques. Additionally, Zimov hopes to hinder the five hundred gigatons of carbon currently sequestered in the soil there from being released into the atmosphere (Zimov 2005). His ecological goals are to study and impact the ecosystem to alter its current trajectory. Yakutian horses, moose, musk oxen, reindeer, European bison, and wapiti have all been introduced to Pleistocene Park as of 2014 and Zimov plans to increase their population sizes, enabling soil trampling and fertilization (Lewis 2012). Soil nutrients will rise, alongside grass, which will eventually become the dominant vegetation, maintaining dry soil. This process will create a steppe ecosystem similar to that of the Pleistocene, allowing Zimov to test his hypothesis.
Another situated example is in Yellowstone National Park, where wolves were reintroduced in 1995 after they had been systematically hunted to the point of disappearance in 1926. Elk populations grew without wolf predation, though certain riparian plant communities sharply declined, causing stream erosion and impacting wildlife. Concerned the decline was due to overgrazing, park services began culling the elk drastically, although the plant communities continued to decline (Ripple and Beschta 2011). After wolf reintroduction, studies indicate that Yellowstone’s ecosystems have restructured and have begun to flourish (Beschta and Ripple 2013). Thus, there is a tri-trophic cascade between wolves, elk, and vegetation. In the presence of wolves, elk alter their foraging patterns, allowing plants in high risk areas to reproduce (OSU 2003). Through the lens of rewilding, Yellowstone’s ecosystem was in a state of imbalance created by human influence that was less wild due to the absence of wolves.
A third example of rewilding is the Oostvaardersplassen in the Netherlands, a publicly owned nature reserve spanning twenty two square miles led by ecologist Frans Vera. Vera believes forest succession is a human-made process created by the woolly mammoth extinction and by horse and cattle domestication. He aims to create “a test case of what the wild animals that once roamed Europe might create when left to their own devices” (Curry 2010). Oostvaardersplassen emerged from the sea in 1968 and quickly became a thriving wetland supporting greylag geese, although it was originally intended to be used for industrial development. Cows, horses, and deer were introduced to the Oostvaardersplassen and the first white-tailed eagles seen in the Netherlands since the Middle Ages now reside there (Lorimer and Driessen 2013 and Curry 2010). Over population has been a source of conflict, creating the need for culling the species until numbers level (Curry 2010). Oostvaardersplassen is both a laboratory for rewilding experiments and a habitat for a range of rare and endangered migratory avifauna, complicating the boundaries between human made versus wild landscapes. Vera’s influence might be perceived as a negation of Oostvaardersplassen’s wildness, as it is neither pure nor untouched, although, eventually, Vera hopes the ecosystem will be self-maintained.
I am interested in exploring whether rewilding is a viable option in the United States. While it would be beneficial to connect national parks, providing sufficient space for large keystone species to migrate, rewilding is doubtfully feasible and would be very complicated to enact (Jaffe 2006).
I’d also like to explore how wilderness and wildness differ conceptually and how they influence rewilding (Jørgensen 2014). In order to rewild a place, a moment in time must be captured for replication. But, ecosystems are always changing. Is this point in time decided upon arbitrarily? Also, the idea of creating pristine nature through heavy handed human influence evokes contradictions. How is rewilded nature different from other human made landscapes (Marris 2013)?
Cited References:
Beschta, Robert L. and William J. Ripple. 2013. “Are wolves saving Yellowstone’s aspen? A landscape-level test of behaviorally mediated trophic cascade: comment.” Ecological Society of America: 1420-1425.
Cardinale, Bradley J., J. Emmett Duffy, Andrew Gonzalez, David U. Hooper, Charles Perrings, Patrick Venail, Anita Narwani, Georgina M. Mace, David Tilman, David A. Wardle, Ann P. Kinzig, Gretchen C. Daily, Michel Loreau, James B. Grace, Anne Larigauderie, Diane S. Srivastava and Shahid Naeem. 2012. “Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity.” Macmillan Publishers Limited: 59-67.
Curry, Andrew. 2010. “Where the WILD THINGS ARE.” Discover: 58-65.
Jaffe, Eric. 2006. “Brave Old World: The Debate Over Rewilding North America with Ancient Animals.” Science News: 1-3.
Jørgensen, Dolly. 2014. “Rethinking rewilding.” Elsevier Limited: 482-288.
Lewis, Martin W. 2012. “Pleistocene Park: The Regeneration of the Mammoth Steppe?” GeoCurrents.
Lorimer, Jamie and Clemens Driessen. 2013. “Wild Experiments at the Oostvaardersplassen: Rethinking Environmentalism in the Anthropocene.” The Royal Geographical Society: 1-13.
Marris, Emma. 2013. The Rambunctious Garden: Saving Nature in a Post-Wild World. USA: Bloomsbury.
Oregon State University. 2003. “Wolves Are Rebalancing Yellowstone Ecosystem.” Science Daily.
Ripple, William J. and Robert L. Beschta. 2011. “Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15 years after wolf reintroduction.” Elsevier Limited: 205-213.
Soulé, Michael and Reed Noss. 1998. “Rewilding and Biodiversity: Complementary Goals for Continental Conservation.” Wild Earth (Fall): 18-28.
Zimov, Sergey A. 2005. “Pleistocene Park: Return of the Mammoth’s Ecosystem.” AAAS: 796-798.
Questions
- Descriptive: Where has rewilding been implemented in the United States? What strategies have been followed for rewilding in the United States? Who has supported it? Who has implemented it? How has rewilding in the United States differed from rewilding elsewhere? What has “wilderness”, “rewilding”, and “wildness” meant to humans over time and how do they relate, compare, and/or differ? Were ecosystems in some state of relative equilibrium in the past? What does it mean for an ecosystem to be degraded/in need of protection? What goals does rewilding aim to achieve? How has rewilding been informed by other methods of ecological restoration? How do rewilded landscapes differ from other human made landscapes?
- Explanatory: Why is the notion of a pristine, pure wilderness so integral in American environmentalism? How does a nostalgic concept of a pristine “wilderness” influence rewilding? In what ways is the push towards rewilding ecological? In what ways is it aesthetic?
- Evaluative: How might the method of choosing a point in history from which to replicate an ecosystem be considered arbitrary? How is it justifiable? How might implementing heavy human involvement to rewild a place evoke contradictions? Is rewilding less wild if it cannot reintroduce top predators? Is rewilding less valuable if it is not on a very large scale?
- Instrumental: What specific measures could be taken for the United States to support a wilderness based off of the ideals of rewilding? How would people in the United States become culturally conditioned to live in a world shaped more closely with the wilderness that rewilding seeks to create?
Concentration courses
- ENVS 460 (Environmental Law and Policy, 4 credits), spring 2015. Exploring the complexities of rules humans have created to govern (and protect) "the natural." Taking a closer look at what considerations would have to go into a rewilded landscape (i.e. ranching issues, human fear of predators, policy initiatives to build awareness, etc.)
- SOAN 306 (Social Permaculture, 4 credits), spring 2016. Research paper on Forest Park and the ways that humans have been removed from the land in order to make it more natural. What decisions go into making a vibrant ecosystem? What types of human engagement have shaped this landscape?
- PHIL 215 (Philosophy and the Environment, 4 credits), fall 2017. Exploring notions of "the wild." How has wilderness been defined by culture and culture been defined by wilderness? What are the moral implications of wilderness designation? What does wilderness mean?
- SOAN 365 (The Political Economy of Green Capitalism, 4 credits), fall 2016. Exploring how a human construct, such as capitalism, has impacted global landscapes. How has capitalism shaped "nature" and perceptions of "the wild" within our society?
Arts and humanities courses
- HIST 261 (Global Environmental History, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.
- PHIL 103 (Ethics, 4 credits). Exploring how moral belief systems impact the ways we interact with our surroundings/that which environs. How are environmentally oriented morals invented and upheld within a culture of people?