Student: Shawn Bolker
Graduation date: May 2019
Type: Concentration (single major)
Date approved: November 2017
Go to concentration landing page
Summary
I intend to examine waterfalls through the perspectives of geomorphology, religion, and tourism in a variety of situated contexts. Waterfalls are unique as they form points of inflection in a watershed, are key aspects in stream channel formation and can also be desirable tourist destinations. In places like Japan, waterfalls hold spiritual significance in Buddhist, Shinto and Shugendo traditions. They are stopping points along ancient pilgrimage routes like the Kumano Kodo route of Japan’s Kii Peninsula and are believed to house deities (MacWilliams, 1995). Waterfalls draw people in, they are irresistible. I recall driving through Yosemite Valley last year to see people literally stop in the middle of the road, get out of their cars and wander aimlessly towards Yosemite Falls, gazing in awe at its towering plunge. Apart from the unique charm of waterfalls, the effects of increased visitation on waterfall rich areas like Yosemite and the Columbia River Gorge is pressingly relevant. The National Park Service is considering making Yosemite Valley only accessible by shuttle because of falling air quality from increasing car traffic. Also, the fires ignited by reckless visitors in the Columbia River Gorge last summer was a manifestation of the potential negative externalities spawned by increased visitation. My concentration will examine how to mitigate these potential negative effects of increased visitation.
The location and appearance of waterfalls themselves are a product of several geomorphic and geologic processes. Geologic processes like varying rates of rock cooling, rock jointing, and mountain building from tectonic forces or volcanism are all potential precursors to waterfall formation. Geomorphic processes like weathering and erosion control where waterfalls are located along a stream as well as waterfall appearance. Sediment flux in rivers that contain waterfalls is also an important erosional agent as sediment build up can completely change waterfall appearance (Knighton, 1998). For example, sediment flux completely changed Bridal Veil Falls in the Columbia Gorge. A sudden increase in suspended load filled the pool that previously separated the upper and lower tiers of the falls. This increased the height of the lower tier and decreased the height of the upper tier. Waterfalls tend to be concentrated in mountainous areas along streams with steep gradient but can also occur along major rivers when there is a sharp change in channel slope (Stachelrodt, 1971). These points of extreme relief along a stream channel are called “knickpoints” and often correspond with waterfall location. Knickpoints propagate upstream as they erode, creating distinct boundaries between adjusting and relict topography. Rates of propagation depend on rock strength, rock type, and layering (Lamb, 2009).
Apart from their unique geology, many waterfalls also hold spiritual significance. Religious significance motivates waterfall preservation and often goes hand in hand with tourism. This is certainly the case in Japan at places like Nachi Falls, which is included in the sacred Kumano Kodo pilgrimage route and is believed to house deities at its brink. Shugendo practitioners also perform austerities under waterfalls in Japan. Some waterfalls are sanctioned as holy objects. This is particularly evident at Nachi and Shiraito Falls in Japan. The evolution of tourism in Japan began largely due to pilgrimage to sacred places. Influxes of pilgrims visiting holy sites prompted economic development in small communities that wouldn’t have seen it otherwise. Famed pilgrimage routes were also a precursor to future sightseeing tour developments (Tourism, 2008). This was especially the case on the north side of Mt. Fuji. The draw of Mt. Fuji allowed local villages on the less fertile north side to enjoy economic stability due to the presence of pilgrims (Blacker, 1984). During my time with the Mt. Fuji program, we experienced religious tourism firsthand and researched how pilgrimage gave way to modern tourism.
Tourism today involves travel to waterfalls with the intent of enjoying pristine beauty while also benefiting the local community. Visitation affects local communities by giving economic support to rural areas that may not experience it otherwise. It also mixes cultures and expands their capacity to house more tourists (Adamson, 2016). Although the notion of tourism in pristine places like waterfalls is meant to leave minimal impact on the surrounding landscape, increased visitation to waterfalls has degrading effects. Also, local communities don’t always reap the full economic benefits (Dougherty, 2009). I plan to investigate how tourism in waterfall rich areas can fulfill its utmost potential by limiting degradation but also economically benefiting nearby communities. This is especially relevant in places like the Columbia River Gorge and Mt. Fuji, Japan – both sites of numerous geologically unique waterfalls that are also significant tourist destinations. Waterfall tourism is relevant as we continue to grapple with the fine balance between encouraging visitation and preserving these sites.
Works Cited
Adamson, Joni, Gleason, William A., and Pellow, David N., eds. 2016. Keywords for Environmental Studies. New York: NYU Press.
Blacker, Carmen. 1984. “The Religious Traveller in the Edo Period.” Modern Asian Studies 18 (4). Cambridge University Press: 593–608.
Brookes, Andrew, and F. Douglas Shields, eds. 1996. River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
Dougherty, Michael L. 2009. “Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, 2nd edition .” Natural Resources Forum 33, no. 4: 340-342
Knighton, D. 1998. Fluvial forms and processes: A new perspective. 3d ed. London: Routledge.
Lamb, Michael P., and William E. Dietrich. 2009. “The persistence of waterfalls in fractured rock.” GSA Bulletin 121 (7-8): 1123–34
Macwilliams, Mark. “Buddhist Pilgrim/Buddhist Exile: Old and New Images of Retired Emperor Kazan in the Saigoku Kannon Temple Guidebooks.” History of Religions 34, no. 4 (1995): 303-28.
Stachelrodt, Chris. 1971. “A Geomorphic Study of Waterfalls and Basalt Jointing in the Columbia River Gorge.”
Tourism.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd ed., edited by William A. Darity, Jr., 398-400. Vol. 8. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. Gale Virtual Reference Library
Questions
Descriptive
What about waterfalls are people drawn to?
How are waterfalls perceived in different religious contexts?
In what range of landscapes do waterfalls occur?
Explanatory
What geomorphic variables affect waterfall location? Waterfall appearance?
What effect does waterfall appearance and location have on religious significance?
Evaluative
What are the benefits or drawbacks of having a waterfalls be easily accessible? Difficult to access?
Instrumental
What are the most effective methods of waterfall visitation and preservation?
Concentration courses
- GEOL 280 The Fundamentals of Hydrology (Fall 2017) Focuses on the behavior and movement of water in natural and modified environments. Includes a student-run class component in which I talked about several aspects of waterfalls and their geology.
- SOAN 367-01 Anthropology of Tourism (Spring 2018) This class traces key themes in tourism including economic and social inequality, race, "the gaze," authenticity, commodification of place and culture, heritage, identity, and performance with focus on Asian countries. It also includes a student run project in which I could research the impacts and development of tourism at waterfall areas.
- ENVS-200 FUJI - Situating the Global Environment (Summer 2017) This course compared geologic and cultural features of Mt. Fuji with other areas in Japan as well as other regions of the world. Includes written blog posts in which I compared religious traditions that happen at Nachi Falls to those that occur on Mt. Fuji.
- RELS-246-F1 - Religions of Japan (Spring 2018) Focuses on religious traditions of Japan from the eighth century to the present examined through the thematic lenses of hagiography, asceticism, syncretism, gender, family, and cultural identity. Includes a semester long research project where one could focus on Shugendo - a Japanese mountain religion of which waterfalls are an important aspect.
Arts and humanities courses
- HIST 261 (Global Environmental History, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.
- PHIL 215 (Philosophy and the Environment, 4 credits). Pre-approved A&H course; no justification required.