By Elise Gilmore, Mamelang Memela, Nhi Ho
Introduction
Cobalt is a metal with the chemical symbol of Co. It has the atomic number of 27. It is usually found in the Earth’s crust in chemically combined forms, although small traces can be found in meteoric iron. It takes up 0.001% of the Earth’s crust and is one of the first transitional metals. Cobalt is often found in iron, nickel, copper, silver, manganese, zinc, and arsenic ores. It is produced in many different locations around the world. The top three producers of cobalt are the Democratic Republic of Congo, China, and Canada. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is by far the largest producer, with an estimated 51000 metric tons of cobalt in 2012 compared to 7000 for China and 6625 for Canada.
Cobalt is used in alloys and magnets and can also be used as a drying agent for inks and paints. (Encyclopedia Britannica) Cobalt alloys are corrosion resistant and therefore are often used in producing aircraft engine parts. Cobalt is also used to create a blue hue in ceramics and has been used in art and jewelry since ancient times. It is also widely used in batteries and electroplating. (chemicool) The synthetic radioactive isotope cobalt 60 can be used to treat cancer and can be used as a radioactive tracer for industrial as well as biological science applications. Cobalt is present in almost every electronics that contain lithium battery, namely phones, laptops. These devices are used all over the world with higher concentration in developed countries. In phones, laptops and cars, cobalt usually takes up 5-10 grams, 1 ounce and 10-20 lbs respectively.
As with many production cycles, cobalt mining causes a wide range of primary and secondary environmental impacts. These activities are not limited to, but include the wasting and pollution of water, air pollution in the form of dust and land degradation, pollution and contamination. The process of mining and manufacturing cobalt requires water; much of which is wasted during the processing and manufacturing stages where water is required by mills which are turned by steam. This may impact the local water supply and limit the amount peoples in an area receive especially in places such as Congo where infrastructure is limited. Ore extraction also produces mine water which if not disposed of correctly can contaminate the water supply which will affect the local people, flora and fauna. Mines also cause air pollution through the dust they create from drilling, blasting and the movement of trucks on unpaved roads. This can cause breathing problems for people especially if the dust particles are very small and contain metals and other contaminants which will cause further health issues. During exploration, forests will be cleared in order to provide space for where the mining will take place and where infrastructure will be built. This destroys wildlife habitat, reducing the biodiversity of the area resulting in the further loss of flora and fauna. In some instances, people who have been living in the area will be forcefully removed without compensation. Through the processes of drilling and digging, the soil loses its structure and thus becomes degraded and unfit for use in the future. Coupled with the mining of cobalt, metals may leach into the soil further contaminating it. Cobalt mining thus has many impacts not just on the local environment but also the people, flora and fauna inhabiting the area.
Production sites
Katanga Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
The Democratic Republic of Congo is a central African country with a population of 81.6 million people and a GDP of USD 784 per capita. Known for its tumultuous colonial history, it continues to face various social, economic and political issues as a result of poor governance and lack of infrastructure. Its province of Katanga is known for being a conflict area with a vast amount of natural resources containing valuable metals and mineral including but not limited to cobalt, copper and lime. It is also a source of hydroelectric power from Lake Nzilo, much of which is used for the mining activities which take place in the area. The province and its capital city of Kolwezi has a population of about 453 000 people. The area is known as the heart of copper and cobalt mining in the country, being the source for the majority of the metals mined.The DRC contributes 53.57% of the world’s raw cobalt to the market which amounted to 66 000 tons in the year 2016. After being mined, the cobalt is then transported to ports in Tanzania and South Africa where it is shipped to China to be processed and manufactured into lithium ion batteries and other consumption materials.
Many of the men who live in Kolwezi are miners who are the breadwinners working to support their families. The mines provide them with a source of income for as little as $2 and $3 depending on how much cobalt they mined. Their working conditions are poor as they are given no protection gear and often do the digging by hand. It is reported that in 2015, 15 diggers were killed as a result of an underground fire. Studies have also been conducted in Katanga and Kolwezi and it is estimated that as of 2007, 4000 children worked in the mines, 10% of the 40 000 who do so in the south of the country. Being a vital mining centre, the infrastructure of Kolwezi is centred around the mines and the town boasts an airport and railway which many of the residents are unable to use as tickets are expensive.
Land degradation, health problems such as pneumonia and birth defects are amongst some of the problems observed and reported in the area caused by high levels of metal and dust exposure. As previously mentioned, much of the cobalt mined ends up in China where it is processed and manufactured to produce lithium ion batteries found in smartphones, laptops and cars. Some of the companies linked to these activities are Apple, Samsung and Amazon. With the price and demand of cobalt expected to continue to rise as technology and electronics become more widespread and used, so will the negative mining conditions of the miners continue to be pervasive so long as they produce.Some companies such as Apple will be asking their cobalt suppliers to agree to outside supply chain audits but many say this will not impact the diggers’ working conditions. If companies pull out of the DRC many of the miners and their families will be left unemployed and devastated as they will be unable to provide for their families thus contributing to the already high levels of poverty in the country.
Gansu Province, People’s Republic of China
China is the most populous country in the world with a population of over 1.4 billion people. China is currently the second largest economy in the world, with a GDP per capita of USD 8,239. Gansu is a province in the northwest of China with a population of 26 million as of 2010 and GDP per capita of USD 4,201 as of 2016. It shares the north border with Mongolia. The demographic of Gansu province includes 92% Han and other minorities like Hui, Tibetan, Dongxiang, Tu, Manchu, Uyghur, Yugur, Bonan, Mongolian, Salar, and Kazakh. 73% of Gansu population is still rural.
As a part of the Silk Road and the Gobi desert, Gansu held important cultural and economical significance. It benefited from the trade with Constantinople and India. Agriculture in Gansu only accounts for a small portion of its economy including production of cotton and wheat. Gansu’s mountainous landscape and semi-arid and arid continental climate and pollution from mining of heavy metals are clear factors that contribute to its diminishing agricultural industry. However, Gansu continues to be the second producer of medicinal plants and herbs in China. Now, most of Gansu economy is dependent on mining and extraction of minerals with nickel being its most abundant elements, accounting for 90% of China’s nickel reserve. Besides its mineral resources, Gansu also benefits from the hydropower industry using water resources from the Yellow River and other local drainage basins. Its 29 hydropower stations are capable of producing 17.24 GW per year collectively. Gansu is also home to Zhangye National Geopark, a rising tourism destination known for its colorful sandstone landscape.
China is the top producer of refined cobalt. In 2015, China produced approximately 49,000 tons of cobalt, contributing 49.7% of the global cobalt output. However, cobalt resources in China only accounts for 1% of the world. Therefore, its cobalt industry heavily relies on imports from other countries namely the DRC. 93% of raw cobalt imported to China comes from the DRC. Gansu province houses the largest mine and cobalt producing company in China, Jinchuan Group International Resources Co. Ltd who is also involved in producing other metals that are abundant in Gansu including nickel. It is reported to have made a gross profit of USD 8 million in 2015. Despite this fact, Gansu continues to be one of the poorest provinces in China as uneven development persists between the periphery in the northwest and the core in the southeast of China. Furthermore, the low level of education in Gansu implies that most of its population is involved in low-value-added jobs at the mines and refinery facilities.
Cobalt, Ontario, Canada
Canada has recently become a top exporter of metals, and is a major producer of cobalt, producing 1743t in 2003. In the early 1900s, however, its mining industry was relatively small. Cobalt is a small town in Ontario, with only about 1100 inhabitants (about half of the LC undergrad population!) in about two square kilometers. It was named Ontario’s Most Historic Town in 2001. Cobalt came into existence spontaneously as prospectors flooded the area to take advantage of the astonishing silver deposits during Cobalt’s “silver rush” in 1903. Most of the best veins were near the surface (and therefore relatively easy to access), so almost anyone could start up their own mine with little equipment or funds. Prospectors swarmed to the area and built homes wherever they could. The lack of planning is evident in the town’s current layout.
Much of the town’s identity still revolves around its history as a mining town. Although the mining industry in Cobalt is now largely defunct, the town is still experiencing the environmental repercussions of mining. Unfortunately, there are extremely high levels of arsenic in much of the area’s surface water, which poses a serious health hazard. Cyanide and sediment from mining can also be found in Cobalt’s water. The underground mines pose a risk of subsidence and there are still some unattractive and inconvenient pits and trenches left over from surface mining. There are also many unsightly and potentially dangerous mine headframes scattered around the town. They no longer serve any purpose to the town, but many citizens of Cobalt do not want them to be torn down because they represent an integral part of the town’s past. The mining museum and mine tours are some of the town’s most popular tourist attractions. Most of the town’s residents are at least third-generation Cobalt citizens and the population has decreased slightly in recent years. “Cobalters” take pride in the uniqueness of their town, although may outsiders see the community as one in decline.
This town is named for the cobalt found during the construction of a railroad in Ontario, when two contractors noticed flakes of silver in the rocks near what would later be called Cobalt Lake. Soon after, a blacksmith accidentally discovered a vein of silver and started LaRose Mine. These events marking the beginning of hardrock mining in Canada. Although the town was mainly known for its silver deposits, miners also found nickel and mercury in the ore as well as cobalt. Some of this was in the form of cobalt bloom (erythrite), a reddish-purple mineral. Between 1905 and 1925, mining in Cobalt made Canada the world’s leading producer of cobalt. After decades of intense mining, Cobalt’s silver deposits were depleted. Cobalt production in the area fizzled out in the early 1970s but started up again in 1995. As scientific and technological developments made cobalt (the mineral) more useful, Cobalt (the town) began to regain relevance in the mining industry.
Conclusion
As seen in the above case studies, cobalt mining has both positive and negative social, political, economic, and environmental impacts. In all of the areas described above, it has left land, air and water pollution and contamination. However, it also benefits the local peoples as it provides them with jobs and infrastructure as seen in the DRC, China and Canada which contributes to the local economies and the welfare of the people. In the mining town of Cobalt, Canada, it also serves as a source of pride and identity for the townspeople despite the fact that it has left much of the town’s water and land with arsenic and cyanide poisoning which continues to impact the health of people years after the mining has ended. While in Gansu, China, the cobalt industry signifies the rapid development of China’s manufacturing industry and provides substantial revenue that contributes to its economy. Yet, it fails to improve the level of poverty in the province that is aggravated by the continuing of uneven development throughout the country.
On the other hand, the cobalt industry in DRC is a form of neocolonialism and exploitation of the local population as miners endure poor working conditions and are paid very little with most of them living below the “international poverty line”. The issues are further amplified by the problem of child labour and the fact that the infrastructure only directly benefits the mines and doesn’t extend to the living spaces of locals who still have dirt roads. Regardless of these facts, the people of Kolwezi need the income from this booming industry to support their families but instead of being a source of prosperity, the cobalt mines continue to weaken them socially, politically and economically as they do not benefit from the wealth the area produces. This illustrates that as with many other resources, cobalt has a range of complex negative and positive impacts which are mainly dependent on their locality and thus the extent to which it can be considered wholly positive or negative are disputable.
Many people around the world use cobalt every day without realizing it. Companies like Apple, Microsoft, and Samsung use cobalt in the lithium-ion batteries in their phones, laptops, and other products. These companies are hesitant to confirm that their cobalt supply comes from the Democratic Republic of Congo, but do appear to have connections to at least one supplier in the DRC. With about 6 billion people worldwide using cell phones, the cobalt industry would likely be of major concern to consumers if they knew more about it. Consumers may want to know that the components of their electronic devices may be unethically sourced, but unfortunately, it is difficult to know for sure. Some companies such as Fairphone are trying to incorporate ethical mining, manufacturing, and recycling practices into the production of their electronics. Consumers should know that cobalt production is a complex issue that can be approached from numerous, diverse perspectives. It has different effects in different sites of production and the industry has evolved greatly over time.
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