By Kat Chester, Tallie Steiner, and Eden Smith
Overview
What is this mineral? Where, in general, is it produced worldwide?
Common salt is a mineral primarily consisting of sodium chloride. The broader category of salts, in chemistry terms, refers to an ionic compound that results from the neutralization of an acid and a base. In its natural state, salt is a crystalline mineral, often named rock salt. Salt is typically processed from salt mines, or through the evaporation of seawater (Salt 2017). Overall, there are three major techniques employed to extract salt from the earth. These techniques include deep-shaft mining, solution mining, and solar evaporation (Freeman 2017). In all, these techniques are used to produce salt for human consumption and a variety of industrial processes. In general, the salt mining industry is dominated largely by China and the United States. Together they account for 40% of the world’s total salt production. According to statistics provided by “SALT” (Production & Industry 2017), China is the largest producer, supplying approximately 48 million tons, and the U.S. follows close behind supplying 46 million tons. Altogether it is apparent that salt holds a large market globally and plays a key function in many industries and processes.
Where are products made from this mineral consumed worldwide?
The consumption of salt has many different markets across many different platforms in the global community. “It has been stated that there are approximately 14,000 direct and indirect uses of salt” (The Material Flow of Salt 1992). On a global scale over half of salt is used in chemical production, while de-icing is the second largest contributor of salt usage globally at 15% (Chemical Economics Handbook Sodium Chloride 2016). This makes a difference in countries like the United States, Germany, and Canada who produce a substantial amount of rock salt, but in turn also need a great portion for their domestic use. Climate plays a big role in whether more or less salt is consumed and whether their is a need to import salt from other countries like Chile or North Africa to meet their needs. Another large user of salt, at 11% of global salt use, is the food industry (Chemical Economics Handbook Sodium Chloride 2016). “Salt is added to food as a food flavor enhancer, preservative, binder, fermentation control additive, texture aid, and color developer” (The Material Flow of Salt 1992). This material has completely been integrated into the global market with China being the most predominant consumer of salt, North America as the second largest, and Western Europe as the third biggest consumer (Chemical Economics Handbook Sodium Chloride 2016). Global consumption of salt is forecast to grow at an average annual rate of 1.7% during 2016 according to statistics from the (Chemical Economics Handbook Sodium Chloride 2016).
What are some potential environmental impacts of production and consumption of this mineral?
Due to the many uses of salt, there is a large range of potential impacts that salt can have on the environment. While producing salt, there are two main potential environmental impacts. The first impact results from mining salt. Salt is generally mined using a “room and pillar” technique (Salt Association 2017) and with the mining of salt, or any material, comes the risk of the mine collapsing. The risk of a mine collapse can result in many environmental impacts such as land subsidence, water flow degradation by an increased input of chemicals from the mine, and damages to local properties and infrastructure (Occhioni 2009). The second potential impact comes from extracting salt using a vacuum brine method. This method requires heat energy which has the potential of releasing carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere which can result in the average temperature of the planet rising. Potential environmental impacts also arise from the consumption of salt. One method of consuming salt is using it to de-ice highways and other roads, which can increase the salinity of nearby soil and water sources. This impact arises from the need to keep roads safe during winter months. In order to keep roads safe for nearby human populations, salt is applied to roads and when too much salt is applied, it runs off into nearby ecosystems. Once in the ecosystem, it has the potential of leaching into the soil and water systems which in turn increase the overall salinity which has harmful effects on the local animals and plants. Overall, the consumption and production of salt can have a significant, but not necessarily extreme, impact on the environment.
Sites of Production
Khewra Salt Mine
Khewra Salt Mine, located in Khewra, Pakistan, is the world’s second largest salt mine. The salt mine is also Pakistan’s largest and oldest salt mine. The mine is situated in a range of mountains that makes up part of a large salt range. This area is a nutrient-rich mountain system that stretches about 200 km from the Jhelum river to where it joins with the Indus river. The Khewra mine sits about 2400 feet into the mountain and approximately 945 feet above sea level. In total, the underground mine covers a region of 43 square miles (Khewra Salt Mine 2017). The salt range was formed close to 800 million years ago with the evaporation of the shallow sea. This area has significant and abundant paleontological sites of interest. The salt range landscape includes diverse fossil findings representing the various flora and fauna of the area throughout history (UNESCO 2017). In all, it is apparent that Khewra salt mine has a large natural significance for the people inhabiting these regions. The great amount of history embedded in the rock formations as well as the many minerals provided by the landscapes has extreme importance for the people living there.
The majority of the social relations in the regions of Khewra Salt Mine are centered around tourist activities. There is a great deal of pride associated with the history of the land and with the large mineral resources offered by the landscape. Khewra salt mine has become a major tourist destination, attracting approximately 250,000 visitors each year. Visitors have access to the internal spaces of the mine and are even offered a train ride throughout the internal cavities. Numerous tourist sites were built within the mine, including an extravagant mosque–the Badshahi Mosque, a replica of Minar-e-Pakistan, a statue of Allama Iqbal, a model of the Great Wall of China, and several other artistic carvings. A few other attractions include a large salt bridge, a palace of mirrors, and a cafe (Khewra Salt Mine 2017). Overall, the major social relations taking place within the mine are mainly ones boasting and celebrating the historical significance and natural beauty of the mine and its products.
The meaning and significance behind the Khewra Salt Mine is largely derived from both its long historical background and its massive production of salt. The salt reserves were thought to have been discovered in the era of Alexander the Great, when his troops voyaged across the region during his Indian campaign. Salt quickly became a major source of trade during the Mughal empire. During this time, salt began to play a major role in many markets, reaching all the way to Central Asia. Following the decline of the Mughal empire, the mine was seized by the Sikhs. Again, salt became a significant source of revenue and a very important asset. In the late 19th century the British took control of the mine and developed its use further. The British effectively reengineered the mine and crafted new techniques of extraction to make salt production more efficient (Khewra Salt Mine 2017). Salt production at this site has flourished ever since and continues today. As of recent recordings, Khewra Salt Mine has been found to turn out 325,000 tons of salt per year. In total, it is estimated that 220 million tons of salt has been extracted over its lifetime (Atlas Obscura 2017). The Khewra Salt Mine clearly has a dense history attached to it and has a lot of cultural meaning for the natives living there. The large and continuous market provided by the salt reserves has additional value to the inhabitants, supplying them with pride and great economic values.
Bohai Sea Region, China
The Bohai Sea region is based around the Bohai Sea, which is the innermost gulf of the Yellow sea in northeastern China and consists of three main bays: Liaodong Bay in the north, Bohai Bay in the west and Laizhou Bay in the south. The sea itself is around 823,000 km2 and three main rivers drain into it, the Yellow River, Liao River, and the Hai River. There is moderate biodiversity in the region, with a large percentage of birds and marine life in estuaries in the sea. Since its marine resources are shared amongst China, North Korea, South Korea, and Japan, the sea is an important and often stressed body of water. Local fisheries in the sea have been heavily exploited and while there are around 100 species of major fishes in it, overfishing has resulted in the degradation of its ecosystems (GIWA 2017). Additionally, the extraction of salt, among other minerals such as iron, coal, and limestone, of which there are large reserves, has contributed to pollution within the region. Due to the large supply of table salt that can be extracted from the sea, the salt industry has had a strong historical presence in the region and it contains China’s top three salt-producing areas. In all, though the Bohai sea region is rich in marine and mineral resources, this has resulted in overfishing and pollution caused by extracting salt and other minerals.
In addition to large reserves of natural resources, large populations of people have gathered in the region. According to the Global International Waters Assessment, the region is densely populated with a total of 343.5 million people living in it, with the coastal areas being heavily dense. Since the area is so highly dense in resources, the majority of social relations revolve around the extraction and economic development of the resources. The salt industry is one of the main industries in the region, it contains 16 major salt fields, and in order to export salt domestically and internationally, structures of transportation have developed. In fact, the Bohai sea contains the largest amount of ports in China (GIWA 2017). In addition to relations based off resources, tourism has also played a part in the region. Even though tourists mainly come to visit the beaches that the region has to offer and not to visit the salt fields, in the coastal city of Dalian, when tourists arrive they are greeted with an opera based on economy and commerce of the area.
Salt has played a significant role throughout the history of the Bohai region and China as a whole. In early Chinese history, salt carried with it the meaning of wealth. Because of its rarity, it was reserved only for people in high power. However, once trade amongst regions and countries expanded, salt became a significant source of income for the Bohai region and the rest of China. In addition to wealth and prosperity, salt has also had a significant meaning in Chinese cuisine. Johan Nylander, a reporter for Asia Times, explains that “Salt has also played an important part in Chinese cuisine, as one of the “seven necessities of life” mentioned in proverbs” (Nylander 2017). Whereas one could go without the taste of something sweet or sour or bitter, one would not be able to function without consuming something salty. Additionally, Nylander goes on to note another economical meaning of salt when he highlights part of a report by Marco Polo, “these rascals … have none of the Great Khan’s paper money, but use salt instead….” (Nylander 2017). Today, salt is seen as a source of pride and wealth in the Bohai region. Given its large reserves, salt is a commodity that the people in the Bohai region value, not only because of its practicality but because of its history as well.
Strataca: The Kansas Underground Museum & The Hutchinson Salt Mine
Strataca, also known as the Kansas Underground Salt museum, is located in Hutchinson, Kansas. The museum is built within one of the world’s largest deposits of rock salt and provides the opportunity to go 650 feet beneath the Earth’s surface (Strataca 2017). The Hutchinson salt member was formed 275 million years ago when the permian sea dried up. The rate of evaporation exceeded the inflow of water, and as evaporation continued and the salt content of the water increased, thick layers of salt built up on the sea bottom (Kansas Geological Survey, Public Information Circular 2002). The paleontological significance of the area is found in the fluid inclusions trapped inside the salt thus revealing being the world’s oldest living organism to date. As well the lack of fossils found in the salt bed because of the third largest mass extinction. The purest portion of the salt vein at this location is 650 feet underground and is still mined here today, “Strataca has access to about 300,000 square feet of mined out area” (About Strataca 2017). The geological significance of this area is as a turning point in the world’s geologic history as the last period of the Paleozoic era. It has left a lasting impact through the manifestation of the Hutchinson Salt member which has provided a source of information and education for scientists, tourists, and locals alike.
The case of Strataca is an interesting juxtaposition in terms of social relations. “The Hutchinson Salt Company operates the original Carey rock salt mine in which Strataca is located” (About Strataca 2017). The ability to be able to coordinate two different economic models based off of what nature had to offer is fascinating. Even with all of this tourist activity the mine still removes over 500,000 ton of rock salt per year (About Strataca 2017).The identity of Hutchison is wrapped up in the salt industry with Hutchinson’s high school mascot being the salt hawk and being known to outsiders as the “salt city”. This kind of investment in the land drives the people in their social and economic livelihoods. Within the tourist destination of Strataca there are eight different attractions. The most recently opened being the Salt Safari adventure which opened in October of 2013. Other attractions of note are the Salt Mine Express Train Ride, A True Geology Exhibit, and the Mining Gallery. There are also much more specialized events like Murder in the Mine which is an interactive murder mystery dinner theater and a 5k run through the mine. This is not even all that the Strataca salt mine has to offer with their being a 26 acre secured sight that is not open to the public. What makes this storage area significant is that it stores the original negatives of many popular films like Gone With The Wind and Ben Hur (Strataca 2017).The integration of the community into the culture of the Hutchinson Salt mine as a current industry and a rejuvenation of years past is a dichotomy that I think makes this location especially unique. The social relations that drive the economy of Hutchinson are founded on the nature that was created eons ago.
The meaning of place for the Strataca Kansas Underground Salt Museum is found in the geology and geography of the land which has allowed for advanced mining and development to impact survival. “Salt marshes and salt springs were used by wildlife, Native Americans, and early travelers. Wild animals of the plains obtained salt from places known as licks. Salt licks, or salt flats, are areas where saline groundwater reaches the surface and then evaporates during dry times, leaving salt on top of the ground” (Kansas Geological Survey Public Information Circular 2002). When man finally arrived they were able to evaporate salt and jerk animal meat. And then finally graduate to commercial production “as early as 1863 at the Osawatomie Salt Works in Miami County in eastern Kansas”(Kansas Geological Survey Public Information Circular 2002). The evolution of Kansas as a state is irrevocably tied with the evolution of salt mining. The business of salt mining can go all the way back to the idea of american entrepreneurship and independence in the discovery of salt when a land developer called Ben Blanchard tried to increase land value by drilling for oil, but found salt instead. As the evolution of technology boomed in the 90’s the importance of putting the salt mines to good use motivated the Reno Historical council to preserve the mines. They wanted to give people the immersive experience of the salt mines that shaped so much of the culture of Hutchinson, Kansas. That is how the the Strataca Museum came to be. It is important to acknowledge the variety of meaning that this mine turned museum can have for the different generations.
Conclusion
As seen in the case studies above, salt is a plentiful resource with an incalculable number of uses globally. It is seen to be the pillar of economic stability in each of these communities while being a plentiful and useful enough to lose money. What has been learned from these case studies is that salt gives each of these cultures a rich history, but more than that it gives them a faith and a purpose in their social and emotional capacities. However, it has come at the cost of the natural communities surrounding these salt mines with the mining in the Bohai region of China greatly degrading the surrounding ecosystems. The manifestation of salt affecting ecosystems can be seen in all three locations of our case studies with salt runoff leading to increased salinization of soil. This can be detrimental to farming and other ecological practices. More importantly though increased salinization can cause damage to infrastructure, reduction in water quality, and soil erosion. With climate change increasingly affecting weather patterns causing more snow and ice more salt is being used, so this imbalance could cause more environmental consequences than first foreseen.
Another interesting lesson we learned through our research on the extraction and production of salt is that historical salt mines have become a major source of attraction for tourism. All three sites of salt production– in particular Khewra salt mine and Strataca, which have extravagant buildings and resources dedicated to tourists–attract tourists from all over to view the landscapes in and around the salt mines. The tourism business has become another major source of income for these locations and offers the residents additional outlets to express their pride and commitment to the enterprise.
After researching three different salt production centers around the world, we have concluded that consumers of salt should consider more than just the basic extraction methods involved; they should begin considering the cultural and historical circumstances as well. As evident through our research, each of these locations holds great pride and historical significance in its salt production. To fully appreciate the origins of the salt that is being consumed daily, it is necessary to understand that the production of salt is accompanied with great cultural importance. This can be done by not only researching the history of the place of production, but also by going to the place of production and talking with the people there and seeing firsthand how the mineral impacts them. Each of the sites of extraction throughout the world that we studied, the US, Pakistan, and China, has it own unique history in which salt plays a central role. Overall, when looking into the production of salt, to fully comprehend its meaning, one must consider the broader cultural significance and context within each region.
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