Ellen Richards and Ireland Flannery
Overview
Iodine is the heaviest and least abundant halogen on the periodic table of elements. It was discovered by French chemist Barnard Courtois in 1811. At room temperature, the nonmetallic element exists as a solid with a purple-black appearance, but it appears violet as a gas. It has a melting point at 114 degrees Celsius and a boiling point at 183 degrees Celsius. Although there are 37 known isotopes of iodine, only iodine-127 occurs in nature. (“Iodine” 2017) However, iodine is also found in human bodies. It is essential for the synthesis of growth regulation hormones in humans’ thyroid gland. Iodine is also present in mammary glands, eyes, arterial walls, the cervix, and salivary glands. Seafood, seaweed, dairy products, eggs, and salt also contain iodine.
The two countries with the highest iodine production are Chile and Japan, the former being the leading producer. There are various ways to produce iodine, including natural gas extraction, the absorption and vaporization of iodine contained in brine, as well as extracting sodium nitrates from the ground and then reducing it to iodine with various other chemicals. The process of iodine production began throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Chile began production around 1867 and Japan later in 1887. It is consumed for various reasons including: germicides, disinfectants, catalysts, absorption of x-rays, photographic chemicals, motor fuel, batteries, and dyes (Kaiho 2014).
One way to produce iodine is through the purification of brine. This is the method used in Japan, due to the iodine-rich brine present. Two methods of iodine extraction are used: the blowing out method and the ion-exchange resin method. The blowing-out method uses iodine’s property of easy vaporization, making it able to mass produce, while the ion-exchange resin method uses the absorption of iodine. (“How to Produce Iodine” 2017). In Chile, the caliche’s main product is sodium nitrate and this is used to produce iodine since iodine minerals are very rare. Therefore the production is a process that requires a few steps. First sodium nitrate is removed from the ground through crystallization and the crushed ore is leached with hot water. A clear solution is then formed, cooled and run off. This solution is where the iodate ions collect. In order to convert the solution to iodide ions, a spray of the solution is reacted with sulfur dioxide in an absorption tower. The solution in the absorption tower is combined with a small amount of another solution containing iodate ions. Finally iodine is created and then separated using a hydrocarbon solvent. From here the solution is heated at 400 K and then passes through a reactor at a pressure greater than atmospheric. Molten iodine is extracted and cooled, producing the solid iodine (“Iodine” 2017).
Iodine is a very important part of the biocycle, escaping from the ocean, where it is the most abundant, and redeposited on land. It is found naturally in the air, ocean, as well as in the land. When iodine in the air precipitates and combines with organic material in the soil, plants can grow that may absorb increased levels of iodine, which may be harmful to the animals that eat them. In terms of anthropogenic impacts, when humans burn coal or fuel, increased iodine is released into the atmosphere. It should be mentioned that some different forms of iodine can be harmful. Iodine 131 is an extremely radioactive isotope, and is thought to increase rates of cancer. Another form of iodine has a half-life of millions of years, and can be extremely dangerous, if an accident occurs in a nuclear power plant, where iodine is converted to form into other harmful elements, such as uranium and plutonium. There are also health issues that can ensue when the human body either has too little or too much iodine, such as issues with one’s thyroid and metabolism. (“Iodine – Chemical Properties, Health and Environmental Effects” 2017) However, there are also debates as to whether iodine can actually help lower one’s risk of cancer, specifically breast cancer. (“The Great Iodine Debate” 2017)
Chile
The Atacama Desert, one of the oldest and driest deserts in the world, is located primarily in northern Chile, partially in southern Bolivia, as well as in northwestern Argentina. It is about 970-1130 km long from north to south (“Atacama Desert | Desert, Chile | Britannica.com” 2017). The average temperature is 22 degrees celsius in the winter and 27 degrees celsius in the summer (“Weather in Atacama Desert in the North of Chile” 2017). Due to its location between two mountain ranges, the area has experienced hyper-aridity for over 3 million years (Wikipedia, “Atacama Desert” 2017). A region in the northern portion of the Atacama Desert went 173 months without rainfall in the early 20th century, holding the world record. However, there are some areas in which no precipitation has ever been recorded. The average rainfall is roughly 15 mm per year. This aridity and lack of rain caused the desert’s first period of industrial development in the 1830s when raw nitrate, which formed millions of years ago, was discovered. Because there was no rain or vegetation, the nitrates were able to remain within the desert’s surface. These nitrates were then sent to Europe in which they were used as fertilizers and in manufacturing explosives. By 1895 the nitrate trade with Europe was growing, providing Chile with more than half its income. As a result, people flocked to the area hoping to also benefit from this economic boom. Ever since then the meaning of the desert has changed. In the 1980s, the government proposed disposing nuclear wastes there but fortunately it did not go through (Vesilind 2017). Now NASA tests instruments in the desert because of its similarities with Mars (Wikipedia, “Atacama Desert” 2017). Therefore, it is clear that an outsider’s perspective of the desert is more concerned with what it can gain from it rather than its intrinsic worth. However, the desert serves a larger purpose for those who live there, it is their home and their history.
The Atacama is home to over a million people, despite its extreme climate and convenient location for mining. Among them are astronomers, farmers, and the Aymara and Atacama Indians. They inhibit the mining compounds, coastal cities, and fishing villages. Many towns in Atacama maintain the culture of the old Atacameño people.
Through deep irrigation systems, farmers are able to grow olives, tomatoes, and cucumbers. The Aymara and Atacama people also herd llamas, in addition to using water from melted snow streams to grow crops (Vesilind 2017). The Atacama is additionally a travel destination attracting adventurous tourists. You can visit one of the many observatories to stargaze, swim in the Cejar lagoons, visit El Tatio, the highest geyser field in the world, and sand board down the dunes (Carswell 2015).
The main source of iodine in Chile is found in the Atacama Desert, specifically from the Caliche Ore which occupies an area averaging 700 km in a north-south direction by 30 km in an east-west direction (“Iodine Reserves” 2015). The production of minerals has been a large part of the Chilean history. Because the Atacama Desert is surrounded by various countries, the mineral resources available have been a source of conflict among Chile, Bolivia, and Peru in the past. However, in 1883 the Treaty of Ancon gave Chile control, resulting in a huge source of wealth. SQM, Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A, began production of iodine in 1994 and it is the largest iodine producing company in the world, but as mentioned earlier mining has been present in Atacama as early as the late 1890s. SQM is based in Santiago, Chile and has locations throughout the world. The process of producing iodine requires multiple steps and it begins with the nitrates that changed Chile’s economy over 100 years ago. In 2010, iodine was chile’s top chemical export and in 2012, Chilean exports of iodine and its derivatives had a value of $955 million. Therefore, it is clear that Chile’s economy benefits from the production of iodine, but what is not so clear is whether or not the people living there benefit from its production. Miners living around the areas face major health issues and the immigrants, failed rural workers, and unemployed men, who flocked to Caliche when this all began were often treated poorly. However this mistreatment marked the beginning of labor unions and clearly illustrated class disparities that existed in Chilean society (Vesilind 2017). The Atacama Desert has greatly evolved over the past century and it the production of mineral is at root of this change.
Japan
The second largest producer of iodine is in Japan. Most of Japan’s Iodine is produced is in Southern Kanto, located on the island of Honshu. Kanto includes approximately 28.8% of the total population in Japan, with 36,923 of the total 65,373 people as of 2015. The population density of Kanto is approximately 2,631 people per km^2. (Statistical Bureau 2016). This investigation into Iodine in Kanto will focus specifically in the Southern Kanto prefecture of Chiba, with an approximate total population of 6,224 people. This area of Japan has a humid subtropical climate, with approximately 50 days of rainy season. The commercial production of iodine started in 1887, and then due to the Sino-Japanese war, Russo-Japanese war and World War I, flourished for a period of time with the economy, before declining after the Showa crisis in 1930. The iodine business in Japan flourished again during the Korean war, when the Chiba prefecture became one of the largest exporters. Each of these wars and conflicts, impacted not only the iodine business, but also the entire country and their values, as wars can greatly affect the culture and values in a nation. (“History of Iodine | Kanto Natural Gas Development Co. Ltd.” 2017)
The Chiba prefecture has an extremely strong and long history, even before the wars and conflicts that led to the adoption of its role in the iodine production industry. Its history, both in these previously mentioned conflicts as well as before them, most likely greatly related to the cultural and social meaning contributing to the sense of place. Shell mounds have been found dating back to the Jomon period, which was approximately 3,000-16,000 years ago. (“Nature” 2017). There is also a great deal of nature in this area, including many parks that are sponsored by the prefecture government (“Nature” 2017). There seem to be fewer areas where nature is left wild, and most seem to be owned by the government. Chiba is also near the ocean, as are most areas in Japan. The ocean is an integral portion of Japanese culture, providing much of the sustenance and tradition of the society.
The importance of the ocean and water in Japanese culture could possibly indicate some of the meaning that the local peoples might give to the extraction of iodine from brine. Brine, water saturated highly with salt, includes a lot of iodine in this area. This is the result of the Chiba prefecture’s past, previously being submerged completely and covered in seaweed. As mentioned previously, there are two separate ways that this iodine extraction from brine can be achieved, through the blowing out method and through the ion-exchange resin method. (“How to Produce Iodine” 2017) After the iodine is extracted from the brine, the water is returned to the ocean or returned to the soil via reducing wells. (“FAQs | Kanto Natural Gas Development Co. Ltd.” 2017) Japan produces approximately 30% of the total global iodine produced, 80% of it produced in Chiba. One of the major iodine production companies in the Chiba prefecture is called Gasukai Natural Gas Development, with a total number of 141 employees as of 2015 (“Corporate Outline” 2017). This is a relatively small number of people, of the 6,224 people residing in the Chiba prefecture. This may impact the importance that this industry holds in the eyes of the local peoples. All in all, each different industry, whether importing or exporting, will affect the sense of place, even if it is difficult to comprehend or quantify. Therefore, while it is difficult to see the overall impact the iodine industry has on the Chiba prefecture, there are undoubtedly more components and impacts that are less simple or easily noticeable.
Comparison and Conclusion
Iodine is the heaviest of the halogens categorized as stable (“Iodine” 2017) and, like all elements and resources we gain from the environment and earth, should not be over-consumed. We should be wary of over-use or over-consumption of iodine, as there are multiple negative impacts if people are exposed to certain forms of the mineral. As a consumer, it is important to have an understanding of what it is you are consuming and where the product comes from. In this case, as a consumer of iodine, recognizing that it is the least abundant of the halogens can allow you to have a better, more conscious attitude toward consumption. It is also important to note the cultural and social aspects of the places that contribute to both production and consumption.
Japan and Chile have varying levels of significance to their relationship between the place and resource of iodine. One major reason for that may be the physical location in which they lie, with Chiba province including many smaller cities, and the Atacama desert having a lower population density. Because the landscape in Atacama, the physical site of production of iodine could possibly be a lot more obvious than it is in Chiba due to its higher concentration of other businesses and infrastructure. The Atacama desert also has a longer history of iodine production than Japan, possibly causing the inhabitants in the desert to recognize its presence and meaning. Additionally, Chile is the world’s leading producer of iodine, potentially resulting in a larger economic effect than in Japan.
So far in this investigation, we found little concrete evidence of major impacts the industry has on the two production areas in Chile and Japan. However, there are countless variables and influences that are not simple and direct to analyze from an outside perspective, that very well may have an extremely large impact on the place. It is important to consider the implications held by the various components of place (social relations, nature, and meaning), as they may have an extremely large effect on the various processes that take place in these locations. Each of these components are extremely important in order to understand the implications of different methods of production or consumption of a mineral. Every location and area is a varied mix of many different factors, including culture, social impacts, societies, the physical location, nature, and the complex and indescribable ways in which these various characteristics intertwine and work together to form the place.
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