By Jakob Riedal, Connor Schenk, Karli Uwaine and Heisman Hosoda
An Overview of Lead
Lead (Pb, atomic number 82) is a soft heavy dense metal that is low cost to extract and relatively abundant. The mineral is mainly found in ores usually combined with zinc and copper where the lead is extracted through a multi step process– the ore is made into tiny balls the size of a grain of salt and then mixed with water and pine oil in a flotation process, an oil froth accumulates on the surface of the water, and the froth is removed and fired at temperatures of 2,500℉ producing molten lead. Today roughly half of lead materials are produced from mining, the rest are produced through recycling of old metals. Worldwide approximately 5 million tonnes of lead ore are mined annually. The leading producer of Lead in 2015 was China producing 2.6 million tonnes followed by Australia with .572 million tonnes then the U.S with 0.346 million tonnes and is also mined in places such as Peru, Mexico, Russia and India.
Uses
Because lead is an abundant mineral which can be extracted for low cost it has historically been used in ammunition, paints, water lines/ pipes and architecture- mainly as roofing. Attempts have been made to phase out use of lead as much as possible due to its high toxicity. Today it is used for radiation shielding in medical analysis, to assist in video display, it is an additive in gasoline and its main use is in motorized vehicles which use Lead- acid batteries to start engines.
Environmental Impacts
Lead is a very toxic mineral which poses many potential risks on the environment. The misuse of the material can lead to contamination of soils through erosion of leaded pipelines which prevents photosynthesis from occurring eventually leading to a lack of growth followed by death of plants. These leaded pipelines can also lead to contamination of waters the presence of lead in water can lower pH to acidic levels causing it to become toxic which in turn poisons aquatic life including shellfish and phytoplankton which are a main source of oxygen in water as well as a stable food source. Lead can also get into the air which is very unsafe for human respiration. Polluted air and contaminated water also affects humans and often leads to Lead poisoning which mainly impacts the brain. Individuals may experience symptoms of abdominal pain, memory problems, and inability to have children, children affected by lead poisoning can have impacts on their brain development.
La Oroya, Peru
La Oroya is a small town of roughly 25,000 people. The town is situated in the Andes mountains on the river Monantro. The area was originally settled for mining of precious metals which was developing slowly until a railway from Lima to La Oroya was made in 1983 making it possible to easily transport the minerals. The cities smelters which are now owned by the Doe Run company- an American mining corporation, were first made in 1922 and since then they have been the city’s main source of jobs. The Doe Run company alone employs around 3,500 people while many other workers in the town provide different services to the smelter. In 2009 the Doe Run Company closed momentarily when it ran out of money to buy concentrates. The workers marched on Lima and demanded that the government bail out the company so that the workers could get their jobs back- the smelter quickly reopened. The town’s economy revolves around the smelter and would leave nearly everyone unemployed if the Doe Run company were to go out of business.
The smelter in La Oroya is a polymetallic smelter which extracts minerals such as copper zinc silver and most of all lead- with an annual capacity of 120,000 tonnes of lead. Lead extraction can result in toxic waters, high levels of lead in the air, and eliminate vegetation if not handled and cleaned correctly. This is precisely what happened in La Oroya where there was little investments in cleaning operations which lead to toxic river conditions, immediate death of plant life in the area and extremely unsafe air pollution. Lead has made its way into La Oroya’s drinking water and as it has dissolved, it has caused the pH of the water to drop and become toxic. This leads to a lack of aquatic life both in vegetation and fish. La Oroya’s air quality is extremely poor with 13 times more lead in the air than what is considered safe. The consumption of this polluted air and toxic water has had effects on the citizens of La Oroya with 97% of children have lead poisoning which harms to mental development, these levels have been shown to be high even before birth inheriting these lead levels while still in the womb.
The lack of regulations and little investment in cleaning operations has placed La Oroya on the top ten of the world’s most polluted places. The town faces the paradox that the Doe Run company economically runs the town and is poisoning it at the same time. That is why the town eagerly awaits environmental regulations instilled by the PAMA(Environmental Remediation and Management Program) which include a containment dam for lead, an industrial wastewater treatment plant, granulation process water at the lead smelter, a protection of public health which aims at reducing the lead blood levels of the people in La Oroya and more. Despite all of the health and environmental issues La Oroya faces, it is still home to many hard workers who need the work at the smelter for survival.
McArthur River in Borroloola, Australia
The McArthur River mine is one of the world’s largest zinc, lead and silver mines situated about 70 kilometres southwest of Borroloola, near the Gulf of Carpentaria in the northeastern Northern Territory of Australia. It rises about 45 miles (70 km) south of Anthony Lagoon, along the scarp that marks the northern edge of the Barkly Tableland, and flowing northwest for 150 miles (240 km) across rugged country to Port McArthur on the Gulf of Carpentaria (Wikipedia, “McArthur River Zinc Mine,” accessed 2/24/17). Swamp and jungle border its lower course, which is navigable by barge for 40 miles (64 km). The river, fed by the Tooganginie Creek and the Kilgour and Clyde rivers, often floods in the summer. At the 2011 census, Borroloola had a population of 926 (Wikipedia, “McArthur River Zinc Mine,” accessed 2/24/17). Borroloola lies on the traditional country of Yanyuwa people. The rivers of this region have carved spectacular gorges through sandstone deposits in their upper reaches. The region has little rain from May to September, and is characterized by lightly treed Savanna grasslands. Borroloola has a tropical savanna climate with the 3 distinct seasons of the Northern Territory, the wet season, the dry season and the build-up season. Extreme temperatures have ranged from 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) to 0.4 °C (32.7 °F). The main economic sectors in Borroloola are tourism, mining, and art. As of 2006, 42 businesses are registered in the town and the unemployment is 35%.
The McArthur River Mining company uses the Imperial Smelter Process in order to export its high-grade bulk lead worldwide to refineries. The open pit excavation is being undertaken in six stages, with the first three targeting the shallowest ore. Conventional drilling, blasting, loading and haulage methods are used. After blasting, the overburden is excavated in horizontal benches to expose the target ore, which is then removed for processing. Separating the ore and waste at the mining stage ensures a relatively pure ore is fed to the processing plant.
McArthur River Mining recognizes their long-term success on their responsible stewardship of the natural resources that they mine. Sustainable development is at the heart of their operations. According to their website, they balance social, environmental and economic considerations and continuously improve their performance by making sustainable development an integral part of their decision-making process. They believe that operating to leading standards of health, safety and environmental management, contributing to the development of sustainable communities, and engaging with their stakeholders in two-way, open dialogue, regardless of their location, enhances their corporate reputation and is a source of competitive advantage (Glencore, 2017). This enables them to gain access to new resources, maintain a license to operate, attract and retain the best people, access diverse and low-cost sources of capital, identify and act upon business opportunities, and optimize their management of risks.
Despite the McArthur River Mining’s statements, the workers of the mine say otherwise. Although the mine provides jobs for many of the people of Borroloola, workers recently broke silence with allegations of serious injuries from toxic smoke. Former fly-in-fly-out workers have told ABC Australia that they have serious injuries after breathing in toxic smoke from burning rock, and that owner Glencore has not offered compensation or assistance (ABC, 2016). One worker even said, “I’ve lost 30 percent of my lung capacity.” The issue with this problem is that workers tend to keep to themselves and not speak out because of their job at the mine. Although lead offers many negative impacts on the environment and public health in Borroloola, it does offer financial support for the workers and their family.
Rajasthan, India
Coming in at only 6th in global lead production, India mines about 100,000 metric tons of lead per year. Unlike many more developed nations that reclaim lead from recycling facilities in order to supplement ore extraction, India relies almost solely on mining deposits found in the Rajasthan region bordering Pakistan. It shouldn’t be surprising that India also comes in 6th in global zinc production, as Indian companies source lead as a byproduct of zinc ore mining. Domestically, the zinc market supply and price determine the lead market supply and price, and is dominated by the Hindustan Zinc Lmtd. Rather than prioritize lead over zinc to increase output, India actually chooses to import most of the lead it consumes each year.
Historically, lead and mineral mining, in general, has been crucial to Indian social and economic development. Zinc and lead mining in India can be traced as far back as the 4th century BCE and the distillation technique required for industrial scale production was developed in Rajasthan around 1200 CE. In ancient metallurgy, lead was ubiquitous as such a soft, malleable metal, and was used to produce everything from colored ceramics to tableware. Metal working and resource mining have existed in the region for millennia and has come to shape modern Indian life in ways of cultural expression (art and jewelry), religious institution (traditions and ornamentation), and economic growth (industrial development) (Craddock, 1983).
Rajasthan, in northwestern India, is a mostly arid region that does not serve well for agricultural exploitation. As a result, residents rely on an industrialized economy and the region is fortunate to have mineral deposits. While many in developed nations would consider their living conditions squalor, many of Rajasthan’s residents consider their environment normal. Nearly a third of the global population live in slums in the industrial zones of developing nations, and as the global population becomes more urban, more and more will face similar living conditions on the outskirts of cities and industrial plants. This will be especially so in India, where the population is rapidly growing, and more and more will live in areas such as the Rajasthan region, pockmarked by open-pit mines and refinery plants. The effects of the lead mining industry is already a way of life for many who know nothing else.
Southeast Missouri Lead District, Missouri
The Southeast Missouri Lead District, also know as the Lead Belt, is home to some of the largest naturally occurring lead deposits in the world. The district is comprised of seven different counties including Crawford, Dent, Iron, Madison, Reynolds, Saint Francois, and Washington and is roughly four hundred square miles. Lead mining began in 1720 at Mine La Motte after the French Governor of Louisiana – Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac – discovered the prevalence of lead. During the nineteenth and twentieth century, Missouri was the global leader in Lead production. In 1967, galena – the natural mineral form of lead (II) sulfide – was deemed the state mineral of Missouri (Missouri DONR 2017).
Before Missouri became a state, the discovery and mining of lead allowed Missouri to develop by bringing in settlers, demanded a transportation infrastructure (railroads and railways), and allowed economic growth to occur. Since the early eighteenth century, Missouri has mined roughly 17 millions tons of lead, equating to a value of nearly 5 billion dollars (Missouri DONR 2017). Mining has played a significant role in Missouri’s workforce and economy. According to the National Mining Association, Missouri mining operations, directly and indirectly support more than 33,380 jobs, accounting for one percent of Missouri’s total employment. Also mining in Missouri adds $5 billion in GDP through direct and indirect economic activity.
While lead mining has definitely allowed Missouri to grow, there are several negative repercussions that have occurred because of it. Currently, there is approximately 250 million tons of contaminated mining waste that is not extractable. Chat piles are the most common form of lead waste, and are extremely susceptible to wind and water erosion, enabling lead to leach into the surrounding environment. Therefore, the people near mining sites in Missouri are more susceptible to diseases linked to lead exposure because of the toxic and hazardous chemicals that are still prominent in the environment.
Conclusions and Comparisons
The industrial production of lead has resulted in numerous environmental and health impacts over the years, including contamination of soil which leads to plant death, contamination of water which impacts all aquatic life, and contamination of air which can causes lead poisoning in both humans and animals. Places such as La Oroya Peru have contaminated their drinking water and have extremely high levels of lead in the air causing lead poisoning in the majority of the town. The main issue is with children where 97% have lead poisoning that severely impacts brain development. If not properly extracted, lead can cause many negative externalities.
Studying the production of a mineral goes deeper than just the physical aspects of production. It is easy for someone to make a judgment based on first glance of place but there is always more than meets the eye but beneath the surface there is a combination of nature, social relations and meaning which make a specific place very complex- things such as the economy, culture and values. In places like La Oroya, Peru it is very easy to say that the smelters are harming individuals and the environment and should therefore be shut down but when you dive deeper that is not the best solution. The smelter is the main source of jobs in the town and without it, thousands would be unemployed. Examples like this prove that it is important to fully understand place before making judgments and decisions.
As a consumer, one should fully research the place of production from which they get their product. It could be the case that there are poor regulations at sites of extraction such as these that lead to extremely dangerous working and environmental conditions. Although knowledge of these conditions may not cause an individual to reconsider their purchases, at least they are aware of the circumstances and can make up their mind on how they want to act. It is important to understand places to be the mediation between the “near order” and the “far order,” or the interaction of small, community relationships and corporate organizations or institutions, respectively. In the case of the Rajasthan region of India, this is evident through their culture surrounding lead. Rajasthan, and others, are places built upon something as simple as extracting a natural resource. Mining lead has existed in their culture for centuries before modern environmentalism, and so it must be approached by understanding the people depend on lead to provide their daily needs and nations will support it for growth and development. These places may exist solely because these minerals do
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Project authored by Connor Schenk, Heisman Hosoda, Karli Uwaine, and Jacob Riedal