Paige Barta, Leela Hornbach, Molly Sheridan
Lithium
Production and Overview
It’s no secret that crude oil extraction ought not fuel the future, especially when lithium can help recharging it. Lithium, is a silver—white alkali metal. It is the least dense solid element and lightest metal. Lithium is highly reactive, for this reason it generally appears as ionic compounds and it never occurs freely in nature. Lithium is commercially extracted from two distinct sources—continental brines and pegmatites. Pegmatites are mined specifically to extract spodumene, a mineral containing lithium. To produce lithium, spodumene is mined and eventually fused with acid before distribution as lithium chloride. A lithium brine deposit is an accumulation of groundwater, surface water or sea water enriched in naturally dissolved saline. To produce lithium, brine is evaporated until a concentrate of 1-2% Li is produced. Further processing in a chemical plant is done, producing namely lithium carbonate (Bradley et al. 2013).
Primary Production Locations
South America is the primary producer of lithium product, but not it’s exclusively existent there, as it’s the 25th most common element and can be found in a range of places. Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, China and Australia are the major producers of lithium. First and foremost, Chile is the lead prouder of lithium carbonate in Salar de Atacama in the Andes mountains. Lithium carbonate and chloride also are produced from brines in Salar del hombre muerto in the Andes mountains of Argentina. Australia is the lead producer of lithium mineral concentrates, while Brazil, China, Portugal, and Zimbabwe are also large producers of lithium concentrates. Concentrates are generally exported from extraction points to be processed into lithium chloride or lithium hydroxide in more industrial settings.
Uses
Lithium is used in heat-resistant ceramics and alloys for aerospace engineering, steel and aluminum production, grease lubricants, lithium batteries, and lithium-ion batteries, as well as some medications. It’s made into alloys with aluminum and magnesium, lightening the weight of these metals, while also strengthening them. Examples would be aircrafts, bicycle frames and high-speed trains. Lithium non-rechargeable batteries operate in heart pacemakers, toys and clocks. While, lithium reachable batteries are in mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras and electric vehicles. The 2012 USGS Lithium Report states that, because of the recent rechargeable battery development, lithium compound use in batteries has the “largest growth potential” compared to other compound uses. The growth pattern is already evident with “[w]orld lithium consumption increased by an average of 8% per year from 2004 through 2014” and “[m]ore than 50% was consumed by countries within Asia” (Jaskula 2014, 2).
It’s no surprise that China is the leading consumer of lithium for this reason. The USGS material yearbook elucidates this occurrence in a report from the early 2000’s; “China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea have historically dominated the small to mid-sized lithium-ion battery manufacturing market, accounting for approximately 96% of the market in 2011” (Jaskula 2014, 3). More recently though, mid-sized batteries are advancing into larger, powerful units, adding further lithium consumption to the previous consumption need. The International Energy Agency found that between 2014 to 2015 electric car registrations, increased by 70% (Global EV Outlook 2016, 12). Moreover, this statistic delineates a remarkable shift towards battery power and the subsequent lithium consumption that follows, inevitably creating a paradox between the environmental concerns of production and the potential alternative energy benefits of consumption.
Environmental Impacts
Lithium extraction comes at a cost to the surrounding environment considering its invasive nature. Extraction of lithium heeds caution towards explosions, as lithium is a highly flammable element. lithium gas can also react to small amounts of water. onsider the moisture in a miner’s eyes fors instance. Lithium is corrosive and can cause many health issues such as corroding skin, eyes and any other tissue it comes into contact with.
Lithium extraction has also been shown to cause resource depletion, increased l toxicity in the ecological surroundings, and human health concerns The use of coal powered processing plants, fuel consumption while importing and exporting the mineral s, deforestation to create extraction points , sediment displacement from mining, increased toxicity of waterways from chemical leaching, as well as chemical waste contributes to the rise of CO2 in the atmosphere as well as other local ecological costs such as habitat destruction through mining and the outward effects of mining on habitat resources.
Garzê Township in western Sichuan, China
The Western Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of China is dotted with small Tibetan villages, sacred grasslands, grazing yak, and Buddhist Temples. This region stands a direct contrast to China’s industrial stereotype. For a better frame of reference, the Garzê Prefecture has a population density of 9.7 people/km², while China’s national average is 150 people/km². Although Western Garzê is remarkably pristine worldwide thirst for commercial resources has marked this place as an extraction point. The impact of large scale elicitation creates complexities that are puzzlingly impalpable, however, the capacity to understand these complexities is manifested through investigation of the broad concepts that create “place” as the indigenous populations know it.
Chinese companies now control the majority of Lithium Hydroxide production, which is considered battery grade lithium. Panasonic makes Tesla lithium cells with lithium produced by Ganfeng Lithium, Tianqi Lithium and Ronda Lithium Co Ltd. (International Lithium Corporation). Both companies extract and process lithium a majority of their lithium locally, as China’s largest lithium deposits reside in the brines and mines of the Garze township, in western Sichuan, China. High in these sacred mountains the primary lithium source is Pegmatite. Extraction of Pegmatite in an energy intensive process, involving the breakdown of Pegmatite for spodumene; a roasting and calcination process at high temperature followed by water leaching, which entails a process of mixing high concentration of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid with water for lithium recovery.
The Washington Post released an article in late December of 2016, emphasizing the impact that lithium extraction was having on the locals, through their observed words, perceptions and opinions. On local environmentalist stated that “Tibetans would oppose mining projects even if companies promised to share profits with local communities and to fill in mines after they were exhausted returning the sites to a natural state”. Many individuals expressed their worry towards how future generations were going to survive if mining continued. Others felt that their needs and concerns were not being heard. Creating contention between the working class locals and the corporate hegemond.
May 4, 2016, hundreds of fish were found dead in the Lichu River, bringing Tibetans onto the street in defiant protest of the Ronda Lithium Co Ltd. There have been over 20 large scale Tibetan mining related protests since 2009. Local Tibetans accredit the mass death of fish to poisoned water from the mining site and water leakage from the leaching site. It is not confirmed whether the pH level of the river was affected by lithium extraction, however, discontent among the Tibetans has already formed t. The central Tibetan Administration believes it’s “evident that the local Tibetans were neither given equal participation while carrying out environment impact assessment nor clear instruction on the proposed project” (Palden 2016). Moreover, the local tibetans believe that their voices are entirely unheard, and their right to benefit from the resources of their home, Tibet, is being instead given to Chinese industry.
Greenbushes, Australia
Greenbushes, Australia received its name from the vibrantly green bushes that stood in stark contrast with the grey eucalyptus trees in the Southwest region of Western Australia. Greenbushes is known for it’s mining of tin, lithium and production of timber. Following World War 1, farms were established in Greenbushes in an effort to settle migrants from Europe and integrate them into the Australian workforce and economy. Now, the town is comprised of roughly 400 residents in a 0.72 km² area giving it a small town feel. Just like any other small town Greenbushes offers a plethora of activities ranging from a mine lookout to visiting a local’s favorite pastry shop. Moreover, most residents or residents of periphery towns are employed by Talison Lithium Corporation or are supported by the revenue that the corporation generates.
Occasionally, the citizens of Greenbushes have been asked to remain indoors during explosions, or to evacuate their homes due to toxic chemical release. In the past company created roadblocks have also been emplaced to keep citizens out. The mine itself however, has met no substantial criticism. This is most likely due to the fact that many residents lively hoods depend on the extraction site staying open, despite these negative occurrences. What has caused local contention more recently is a proposal to build another 400 million dollar lithium extraction facility adjacent to Greenbushes. Agitated locals, have begun to voice their opinions on the proposal.
The Greenbushes Operation itself is located in a State forest, which connects the lithium production to nearby agricultural areas. In 2016 Australia produced 14,300 tons of lithium and the USGS estimated that Australian lithium reserves to be roughly 1.6 million tons, 200 million tons up from 2015’s yield. Lithium ore is mined from the open mines in Greenbushes where the ore is also processed in one of Greenbushes two processing plants. Technical grade lithium concentrates with low iron percentage and high yielding lithium concentrates are processed separately in Greenbushes processing units. High yielding lithium concentrates are shipped worldwide and are processed worldwide to create lithium chemicals such as lithium carbonate. Australia has historically been the largest exporter of lithium to China. Tianqi, a Chinese company, owns over half of the shares in Talison Lithium. Thus ensuring that China receives the bulk of Talison’s exports leading to the Chinese shining as the largest lithium importers. (A breakdown of major lithium producers can be found here).
Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia
Salar de Uyuni is the world’s largest salt flat and can be found in Potosí, Bolivia. It it lies amidst the Andes Mountains and expands to around 4,086 square miles. Though the flats attract flocks of tourists to Bolivia, its most monetarily valuable assets are its lithium deposits. Like many salt flats, volcanic activity and the formation of brine have allowed for large formations of lithium. Many clusters of indigenous Atacama people living at the high elevations rely on South American salt flats for tourism and resources. The residents of this area are affected daily by these salt flats and consequently, the lithium deposits.
The resistance of the indigenous people that has been seen in the past regarding lithium extraction is not purely economic. Similarly to most forms of mines, lithium extraction can impact the surrounding fresh water quality and release toxic waste that degrades the land used to raise livestock by the indigenous Atacama. According to Washington Post, protests against mines have mainly been regarding water use and contamination in the mining process. Ancestral lands are threatened by the inherently destructive properties of lithium mining. This degradation has lead to lawsuits between the indigenous people and mining companies. These lawsuits also include Bolivian outrage over compensation. The Daily Jstor discusses the Bolivian government’s desire to keep the majority of the profits within the country. However, due to the great expenses of the mines, the government has had to accept foreign investors into the Salar de Uyuni to establish their own mines. These relations with other countries have lead to economic complications within Bolivia and tensions between nations. Perhaps the most economically neglected group, the indigenous Atacama have to fight their own country to be compensated fairly for the exploitation of their ancestral land. Similarly to the Tibetans, the Atacama have lost their voice in public debate concerning sacred land exploitation.
However, the existence of such a valuable, important, and popular stretch of land has lead to a strong national pride in Bolivia. On a smaller scale, the indigenous people of Salar de Uyuni view the land as a beautiful, important, and spiritual area. Still, the economic drive overpowers basic humanity regarding the treatment of the indigenous people. Their ancestral land is monopolized and taken away from them, and as with many other historical land-grabs, they are given very little say as to what occurs on the flats. Livestock are affected by mines and lack of clean water, leading to a reduced income of these people and reduced quality of life. Though the world relies on this area to power its batteries, this small collection of people is forgotten in the wake of economic development.
Conclusion
Overall the production of lithium and its presence in daily life with respect to technological advances has increased over the last few decades. As for what this means in today’s society, the answer is still left unclear. However, through the examination of place in relation to material some complexities have been given new dimension. Lithium is no longer just a component of developing technology and rechargeable batteries mean more than the reuse label given to them. We can now question the deeper implications of Tesla’s revolutionary rechargeable car battery campaign. Take Jiangxi Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd for example, a prominent supplier of the lithium used in Tesla batteries. On their website, Ganfeng Lithium stated that, “We adopt advanced craft, technology and equipments to control pollutant, improving environment and living conditions, using resources and minimizing energy, providing health and safety for society and staff”. When in reality after developing an understanding of “place” adjacent to material extraction it becomes clear that these are not Ganfeng Lithium’s ideals at all. In fact tibetan citizens spoke in defence of their treasured land where they were met with threats of having all poverty-alleviation grants removed should they address environmental threats again. Is this truly a company worth supporting? The answer may lie in further research or moral deliberation. It’s hard to say, but what is definite is that lithium consumption should be done with care since the technology available to us now is limited, along with our understanding of the effects that lithium extraction has on future generations.
Extraction sites for lithium span worldwide. Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia, Talison Lithium in Greenbushes, Australia, and the Garzê Township, in Western Sichuan, China are diverse examples of lithium production across different continents, cultures, and governments. While there are negative impacts associated with lithium production and processing which continue to affect cultures near and far, the prospect of a future fueled by lithium rechargeable batteries might possibly outweigh the damage of lithium extraction in the present. There is no answer to where science will bring us with new technology and the negative impacts of many things is have yet to be fully realized unfortunately.
What has not been stated thus far and what the Tibetan’s may not know either, is that their efforts to minimize Chinese lithium production may have had genuine impact, albeit short lived. In 2013 the largest lithium production plant in China near Jiajika was briefly shut down due to relentless environmental activism. According to the USGS mineral yearbook records, Chinese annual lithium production declined sharply in 2013 by almost 1000 tons, which meant almost a ⅕ reduction in annual total production compared to the years before and after. Hope that current conditions may change could be the answer in certain situations concerning place. Let the Tibetans be your guide of small steps for a greater cause.
Works Cited
Bryan W. Jaskula. 2014. “2014 Minerals Yearbook: Lithium.” United States Geological Survey. Accessed February 25, 2017. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/myb1-2014-lithi.pdf
Dwight Bradley, LeeAnn Munk, Hillary Jochens, Scott Hynek, and Keith Labay. 2013. “A Preliminary Deposit Model for Lithium Brines.” Report 1006. United States Geological Survey. Accessed February 25, 2017. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1006/OF13-1006.pdf
International Energy Agency. 2016. “Policy Support.” Global EV Outlook 2016, 12. Accessed February 24, 2017.https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.pdf
Tenzin Palden. 2016. “Lichu River Poisoned – Case of Minyak Lhagang Lithium Mine Protest.” Central Tibetan Administration. June 6, 2016. Accessed February 25, 2017. http://tibet.net/2016/06/lichu-river-poisoned-case-of-minyak-lhagang-lithium-mine-protest/
“Applying geoscience to Australia’s most important challenges.” Lithium – Geoscience Australia. Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.ga.gov.au/data-pubs/data-and-publications-search/publications/aimr/lithium.
“Rockwood Completes the Acquisition of 49% Interest in Talison Lithium.” Business Wire. May 28, 2014. Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20140528005569/en/Rockwood-Completes-Acquisition-49-Interest-Talison-Lithium