By: Berkly Martell, Summer Watkins, Shoshana Rybeck, Kyle Mezrahi, Jesse Milman
An Introduction to Silicon
The eighth most common element by mass in the universe, silicon (Si), is a shiny, charcoal colored metalloid, labeled with the atomic number 14. Although not identified as silicon in its natural state, it is mined as silica and produced by a series of processes that make it a useful commodity. In order to obtain the valuable metalloid from its silica state found in the Earth’s crust, gravel, sand, and/or quartz needs to be mined and then heated with carbon materials such as wood or coal. The heat causes the carbon in the added materials to react with the oxygen in the raw materials, creating a liquid form of silicon (How Products are Made, accessed 2/22/2017). This element can then be used in the production of other major materials such as cement, aluminum, or solar panels. The raw materials for the production of silicon and the silicon itself are mainly produced in China, as they produce 5,400 tonnes of silicon every year (USGS, 2012).
The raw materials that are comprised of silicon are mined through open pit or dredging methods from sand, quartz, and/or gravel. These mining methods produce carbon monoxide as a byproduct, which feeds into the issue of increasing atmospheric carbon. Once mined, silicon is heated with carbon materials, which mainly emits silica fume, but can also emit carbon as a result. The release of silica fume is fairly harmless to the earth’s atmosphere, as it is commonly sold to cement and refractory industries to make their products stronger, as well as heating and insulation companies to aid in their composition. Nonetheless, these emissions are still monitored and silicon producers must comply with the Environmental Protection Agency’s emission regulations in the United States. While silica fume is mostly harmless to the environment, it does produce health concerns. People who work in quarries and cut stone are at risk of a lung disease called silicosis, which is caused by prolonged exposure to silica dust. Silicon is mainly consumed as a part of other materials, as it is used to make cement, electronic devices, solar technologies, and other constructing materials.
In order for silicon to be used in the production of these other materials, it must be transported from a silicon factory. This transportation can be through waterway, air, or land, transportation methods that each involve fossil fuel emissions that degrade the atmosphere’s air quality. The possible environmental impacts of the life of silicon do not stop there. Once used to make cement, electronics, and any other material possible, one must consider the emissions and waste associated with the production, use, and disposal of that new product. It is not difficult to recycle silicon itself; however, it is fairly difficult to strip electronic devices, such as computers and cell phones, and articulate the individual metals and plastics separately that all contribute to one device. The recycling of silicon scraps is available by various firms, such as Targray. Pieces of silicon scrap as small as 2mm by 2mm can even be processed. However, as stated earlier, silicon is found in a number of products, and is hard to single out. For example, in 2012, we generated 3.412 million tonnes of e-waste, and we are throwing out more than 600,000 e-devices every day, according to the EPA. It is safe to assume that silicon materials reside in almost all computers and cellphones, as it is one of the most efficient and cheapest semiconductors on the market. It is clear that silicon is a highly important material and is also invaluable to the world metalloid market; a market that depends on production sites in an array of places.
Oslo, Norway
Elkem AS is a company that produces silicon and solar grade silicon, and is located in Oslo, Norway. Oslo is the capital and most populous city in the country, and is said to be the governmental and economic hub of Norway. Around 658,390 people live in the capital city. Oslo is known to have the highest quality of living among European large cities, and as a result it is also one of the most expensive cities in the world (Wikipedia, Oslo, accessed on 2/22/2017). Norway has a Warm Summer Subcontinental climate as defined by the Köppen and is densely covered by mountain ranges. Elkem Silicon Materials of the larger company, Elkem AS, is one of the world’s top suppliers of silicon and microsilica. They also produce silicon for aluminum alloys, aluminum brazing, batteries, ceramics, plasma spraying, polysilicon, silicones, and other applications (Elkem, accessed on 2/22/2017). Another branch called Elkem Solar gives out pure silicon to solar companies. Although the headquarters for Elkem AS is located in Oslo, they have other plants for carbon, foundry products, and of course silicon. All of the silicon plants are located in Norway, located in Bremanger, Salten and Thamshavn (Wikipedia, Elkem, accessed on 2/27/2017). Bremanger, Salten, and Thamshavn all have a smaller population than Oslo.
Norway, like many Scandinavian countries provides free public education for its citizens. This education system benefits not only Norwegians, but companies like Elkem, as they are able to hire more highly educated workers. With their education comes more expertise on the functions of the company and industry, and such knowledge can make the company more successful. in Oslo, as The University of Oslo has around 27,227 students, and is ranked the best university in Norway and the 63rd best university in the whole continent of Europe, indicating a more highly educated upcoming generation that will contribute to economic growth in the future (Wikipedia, Elkem, 2/27/17). By having Elkem AS and its production plants, it stimulates the economy.
Although Norway’s population is just over 5 million people and houses significantly less compared to countries like China, United States, Russia, and Brazil, they are the 4th largest producer of silicon, producing 320,000 tonnes per year. By having the Elkem AS plant in Oslo, it provides more jobs to the people in Oslo and the rest of Norway. However in Thamshavn, a small port village, Elkem has a major influence there. This allows for the silicon to be transported directly from the factory by boat. Thamshavn has an Elkem-owned smelting plant, which employs around 130 people daily, and they produce some of the best silicon in the world (Wikipedia, Thamshavn, accessed on 2/27/2017), something that the people can be proud of. People felt that the introduction of this plant didn’t really affect the overall scope of air pollution in Norway.
Tokyo, Japan
Tokyo is the thriving, fast-paced capital of Japan. However, the hustle and bustle allows little room for nature, as it has the highest urban population worldwide (Cox, 2012). Parks and outdoor public works can be found sprinkled among the high rises in the city. With that being said, minerals are not mined within Tokyo’s city limits. Silicon, perhaps the most important mineral produced in Japan, is a commodity used in Tokyo’s technologically advancing flow of life. A limited amount of domestic mining can be found in Japan, which contributes to silicon production via silica sand (Wikipedia, Mining in Japan, May 2012).
Silicon is produced in many SUMCO Corporation branches throughout the world. Headquartered in Tokyo, SUMCO Corp. creates semiconductor silicon wafers used in the circuits of electronics worldwide. SUMCO employs up to 10,000 people in the city of Tokyo (Glassdoor, Accessed 2/24/2017), and works to promote a respectful community for its employees and neighbors (SUMCO, 2015). Although SUMCO has released an environmental impact summary for its main United States branch in Phoenix, Arizona, there is no release of said information found as a result of its headquarters in Tokyo. Granted, it is not fair to assume that both cities are affected to the same extent or in the same way. However, the idea of “high-tech pollution” is an issue connected to the technology industry in Japan (Hays, 2013). This suggests that the release of harmful particles are caused by these major technology companies. As a result, surgical masks are worn all across Asia in order to reduce the risk of illness, but also to reduce the amount of pollutants entering the respiratory system. Technology aids us in many ways, but can also create serious health risks.
By use of these electronics ultimately produced with these silicon wafers, Tokyo has access to multiple forms with which to use the Internet. Socially, the Internet allows people from all over to communicate. This massive web of ideas, dialogue, blogs, social media, and news (among endless other things) provides not only an information portal to foster curiosity, but also a way to connect with others near and far. The Internet also creates a link between people and economics, politics, and culture. Unlimited resources are available at the touch of a few buttons on screen. While providing jobs and providing easily accessible intelligence, humans everywhere happily click away on their phones and computers.
Munich, Germany
Munich, Germany is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria. Munich is also the third largest city in Germany. The city is a cultural hub and a major center of arts, advanced technologies, finance, publishing, culture, innovation, education, business, and tourism. (paraphrased from wiki) According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, as of 2015. Bavaria is also considered to be the European version of silicon valley, which is located in the San Francisco Bay Area in California (Kollewe, 2011). As in the case of the Californian silicon valley, the term silicon valley does not refer to the raw material silicon but instead to the increasing size of the technological industry in Munich. Although the city is fast-growing, it in fact does not have a huge supply of domestic natural resources, but the country itself is a large producer of bituminous coal, brown coal, salt and potash (Elker, Kirby, Berentsen, 2016). Before the unification of Germany, the mining of most metallic minerals decreased because of economic reasons(Elker, Kirby, Berentsen, 2016). But, Germany does produce a small amount of silica, it was estimated that the country produced between 1% and 6% of the world’s silica supply. The production of silicon also does not have a large economical impact because mineral extraction only accounts for about 0.24% (about $8 billion) of the GDP (Anderson, 2014).
Because Munich is a very innovative and modern city, the chemical company Wacker Chemie AG has a huge industry based in Munich, which is there to mine the small percentage of the world’s silica. The company is divided into five divisions, but it derives most of the products from two raw elements: silicon and ethylene (Wikipedia, Wacker Chemie, accessed on 2/27/17) . Wacker Chemie AG’s largest production site is the Burghausen plant located in Southeast Bavaria with about 10,000 employees. Wacker Polysilicon produces pure polysilicon for use in electronic and solar wafers. Wacker Silicones serves end markets like construction, automobile, paints, textiles, and paper. This production of silicon does not have a large environmental impact because it is a relatively small mine compared to other oil extraction sites, the resource which is one of Germany’s largest production of natural resources.
Although the company is located worldwide, its headquarters are located in Munich, Germany for multiple reasons. Bavaria has other mineral resources but the Wacker Chemie AG’s production site of silicon in Burghausen provides 10,000 jobs for local workers. This obviously has a positive social impact because it provides a steady job to a lot of people without a large environmental impact.
Burnsville, Mississippi
Burnsville, MS is an incredibly small town, with a population of only 934 people. The town is majority white and of lower income, with the median household income coming out to $20,083, a stark difference from the 2016 national median household income of $51,939. The town has one public school specific to the town, and is a part of the surrounding Tishomingo County. Since the Mississippi Silicon’s plant opened in Burnsville in October 2015, it has provided around 200 jobs for citizens of the town, and has provided their employees with notably higher incomes that other employment options in town, around $45,000 annually (Wikipedia, Burnsville, Mississippi, 2017). Burnsville was not the first option for the new silicon plant location originally, as RIMA Industrial SA and CleanTech LLC, the stockholders in Mississippi Silicon, first thought of placing the plant in Paraguay, Uruguay, or Quebec. The plant has not been a contentious issue in the town for the most part. The community pretty much agrees that the plant is a beneficial to the whole area and is a great stimulus for the economy. This positive view of the plant can be seen through the local articles that have been published about how the new company has brought jobs and a new successful industry to the town (DJournal, Premier Mississippi Silicon Plant Opens, 10/29/2015)
Ultimately Burnsville was chosen to be the location for a silicon production site due to its access to raw materials such as wood chips, coal, and quartz all of which are used in the plant’s process of making silicon metal. Burnsville also emerged as the most promising location because of its access to the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, a biogeographical staple used to transport the goods to consumers (DJournal, “Premier Mississippi Silicon Plant Opens”, 10/29/2015). The plant’s silicon is produced from mined sand, gravel or quarts, and is created by the heating of these mined materials with coal, wood chips, or other carbon products. Mississippi silicon specializes in this step, producing the metalloid through chemical processes in an arc furnace. The plant’s process consists of blending quartz or gravel (transported by outside suppliers) with carbon in said arc furnace. Due to the heat the carbon reacts with the oxygen in the quartz, changing the quartz into 99% silicon in molten form. This liquid form of silicon is then tapped from the furnace and ready for consumption (Mississippi Silicon, Our Process, accessed 2/21/2017). Mississippi Silicon is known to produce 36,000 metric tons of this silicon metalloid annually. The corporation prides itself for its energy efficiency and economic value, as it is the US’ “new silicon metalloid production facility in 40 years”, and a prominent employer for the town of and surrounding towns of Burnsville. The plant was overwhelmingly welcomed by the small rural town in 2015, and seemed to the town and country to be a promising addition to the community (DJournal,Premier Mississippi Silicon Plant Opens, 10/29/2015).
The town’s natural environment resembles much of Mississippi and the American South-East, with temperate forests, and a Humid Subtropical Climate as defined by the Koppen climate classification. The environmental characteristic of the temperate forest was somewhat impacted by the plant’s introduction, as some trees in the forest were cut down to make the plot of land it was built on. Just as this waterway is seen as a positive for Mississippi Silicon, the proximity of the waterway worries some, as they believe the fossil fuel (specifically carbon) emissions from the transportation and production of Silica will interfere with the water’s health. But, the Burnsville community is engaged in the environmental wellbeing of their surroundings, and recognizes Mississippi Silicon’s claim to have the most environmentally friendly and energy efficient technology to be an important and crucial aspect of their positive impact on the community. The plant publicizes their commitment to complying with the “most stringent of environmental regulations” (Mississippi Silicon, Key Facts, accessed on 2/21/2017) and cites their proximity to raw materials as a main component in their energy efficiency, as transportation costs are low. Specifically, all of the raw materials needed are supplied from companies in Mississippi, Alabama and Kentucky, the electricity needed is produced by the “Tennessee Valley Authority”, and the silicon produced at the plant is sold from Polymet Alloys Inc. in Birmingham Alabama. The concept of having all of these sources be in surrounding states, supports the plant’s initiative to be as energy efficient as financially possible. However, there are critics of the plant despite the major support it receives from most community members. Critics have been known to question the water and landscape pollution that may occur from the in plant. When being proposed, the plant was taken to court by one local resident who feared the plant would pollute the parks and land in the community through air pollution of carbon emissions. The suit was filed on the grounds that the plant did not have a valid air quality permit issued by the EPA. The case was dismissed and production continued (Mississippi Business Journal,Suit to block silicon plant in northeast Miss. dismissed, 7/31/2015). The lawsuit, has in no way degraded the pride the town has for the plant. Community members value the plant as a staple of success and importance. Just as Mississippi Silicon itself is prideful that they have built the first new silicon plant in the U.S in 40 years, the community responds positively to the plant’s location, as it implies the area will continue to see economic growth, strides of technological ingenuity, and involvement in a crucial part of the global market.
Cape Flattery, Australia
It is well documented that China is the largest producer of silicon in the world (Humphries, 2014). However, information from this country is particularly hard to come by; the USGS has repeatedly reported that there is inadequate available information on these specific details. “Details concerning quartz operations in China, the Eastern European countries, and most nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States were unavailable” (see here and here). Though it is a downer that the largest producer of silicon in the world cannot be adequately examined, it is uplifting that we can closely examine the place where the biggest silica sand mine exists. Cape Flattery Silica Mines is located in the north-eastern part of Australia. If someone from Melbourne wishes to visit the mountains of silica sands that tower near the Great Barrier Reef, she must fly for more than three hours. According to Wikipedia, Cape Flattery, as a physical location, is around 40 kilometers from the nearest town with a population of 2,339, and has the world’s largest silica mine (Wikipedia, Cape Flattery (Queensland), accessed on 2/24/2017).
Cape Flattery Silica Mine was originally pioneered by the aboriginal people of the area. Local Hope Vale Aboriginal Community members would actually shovel bags of silica sands and deliver them, by hand, to freighters moored offshore to Japan (Mininglink, Cape Flattery, accessed on 2/25/17). The Hope Vale Community were not the only ones who realized the potential of this grand deposit of natural silica sand. In 1977, the Japanese Mitsubishi Corporation acquired the Cape Flattery mines in order to supply to mostly Asian countries (Mitsubishi Corp., Coexistence with the Environment and Local Communities, accessed on 2/25/2017). Although a large corporation gaining control over an aboriginal group of people seems like a negative, it is actually a positive. This is because the Mitsubishi Corporation is the world’s leading producer of silica sand, but Cape Flattery still contains a local focus within its realm and infrastructure. Almost half of the Cape Flattery workforce are part of the Hope Vale Aboriginal Community (QRC.org, Cape Flattery Silica Mines Pty. Ltd., accessed 2/25/2017). According to Ports North, “Cape Flattery covers a lease of around 6500 hectares and has an estimated resource of over 500 million tonnes of silica sand.” Mitsubishi realized there was a large amount of silica sand, so they built a port capable of hosting ships of up to 80,000 tonnes (Ports North, Port of Cape Flattery Handbook, accessed 2/24/2017). This port is intrinsically linked to the economic well-being of the surrounding communities.
The surrounding shores of Cape Flattery sports clear blue ocean, open skies, and an average temperature of 29.8℃. Not only is this area home to the Hope Vale Aboriginal community, but it is also home to flourishing marine and land life. Sandy beaches to the north of the port provide important turtle nesting areas, and deep offshore areas off the cape are worked by prawn trawlers. The local economy is dominated by the mining industry, and dugong have been spotted grazing the seagrass meadows of inter-tidal areas north of Cape Flattery. One may hunt hermit crabs on the beach, or one may explore the mangrove wetlands of the coast. This place is, among many things, a major intersection between human and animal life, local and global lifestyles, and small-scale politics and international trade policies. The port provides this intersection to occur. (Ports North, Port of Cape Flattery Draft Land Use Plan 2017, 2017) Although the silica mines are operated by Mitsubishi, the port itself is operated by Ports North, a firm that controls a slew of ports in northern Australia. As mentioned earlier, Cape Flattery is very isolated. Imagine a person living in relative solitude, but is intrinsically connected to the broader world of international trade and the discourse of silica sand. As Cape Flattery is the largest producer of silica sand in the world, and the local economy is almost solely based on the mining of silica sand, it would be almost impossible to the inhabitants of this area to not be affected by the mines in some way. According to Port North and Mitsubishi, Cape Flattery maintains to the extent of its power the environmental damage caused by mining silica and operating near abundant marine life and land vegetation and by the Hope Vale Community. The efforts made to keep environmental damage at a low mixed with local exposure to the global trade is a combination of elements that makes Cape Flattery Mines a “place.” Although these examples are just a few ingredients toward what makes Cape Flattery important to its people and to its wildlife, the interlocking elements all take shape when one sifts through the silica sand.
Conclusion
As normal daily activity happens, the materials we use seem to go unnoticed. The cotton we wear on our backs, the various metals that comprise our computers, and the paper we jot notes onto. One may notice and appreciate certain materials, but the life cycle, production, and politics that a certain material has endured is commonly overlooked. Situating silicon has in a sense broadened the our group’s outlook of how a certain material can be fully appreciated. We learned how silicon’s trade affects countries and communities, and that the material is sourced from a broad array of places. Among other things, we learned how silicon is produced as well.
While comparing silicon production sites Elkem AS in Oslo, Norway and Cape Flattery, Australia, we can understand how the size and economic activity of the surrounding areas are related to the production of silica sand or the making of silicon. In Oslo, the factory has little impact on the economy. The economy of Cape Flattery, however, almost completely revolves around the silica mining. In Burnsville, Mississippi, the forests are abundant, meaning that the silicon plant does not take up as much land in relation to the city. In Tokyo, Japan, there is almost no room for ‘nature’. Each site of production contains different elements to what defines it as a ‘place’. These elements, we realize, comprise the economic influences that silicon imposes on the world metals market. Although there is an extensive amount of aspects that define a certain place, the mining and production of silicon is what connects all of the silicon production sites to each other and to the world market.
There are multiple raw materials that are part of the production process of this metalloid. These raw materials must be accompanied with certain biogeographical characteristics, in order to ensure apt transportation methods and access to the materials themselves. The consumer should ultimately be aware of a few things in regards to silicon. Silicon is used as a semiconductor in almost all computers, and is vital to the construction of many other widely used electronics and materials. Silicon is found in materials such as sand or dust as silica, and then undergoes a process to create the silicon. Although the compound is one of the largest percentages of materials found in the earth’s crust, it is rarely found in silicon form. The environmental impacts of silicon production range from the carbon emissions of silicon transportation to the effects of the actual mining sites. When one compares silica mining sites such as the Cape Flattery Silica Sand Mine to silicon manufacturing sites such as Mississippi Silicon, the implications of production change drastically. Mining sites require more materially enriched land, and tend to contribute more to atmospheric carbon levels than their silicon manufacturing counterparts, as they carry out processes that emit more harmful fossil fuels. Overall, the Situating Minerals assignment allowed each group member to develop individual research skills as we explored the production of silicon in certain places worldwide. Analyzing the world market for silicon, as well as the environmental impacts of the production of the metalloid helped us to fully understand the usage of silicon in our daily lives.
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