Overview
Arsenic, in the elemental form, exists in a number of forms. Yellow arsenic, which reacts readily, is extremely poisonous. Gray arsenic, a more ordinary stable form, exhibits low thermal conductivity and is brittle. The semi-metallic form of arsenic is steel gray in color with a bright luster. It is very brittle and is a good conductor of heat but a bad conductor of electricity. Arsenic can be found widely in nature, rarely though in its elemental form. Most of the time it is combined to oxygen and sulfur. Arsenic though is usually found and majority, if not all the time, extracted from certain ores. There are over 180 known ores that Arsenic can be found in but, copper, silver, zinc, lead, iron, and gold are the main set. Arsenic is extracted from the flue dust of these ores when smelted. It is known widely as a troublesome impurity during the smelting process. The two major types of Arsenic that are produced and traded are Arsenic Trioxide and Arsenic metals. In general, as of a 2017 mineral publication, China produces 25,000 metric tons, while Morocco was second with 7,000 metric tons produced.
China, in 2016, supplied about 89% of the U.S. arsenic metal and trioxide imports. The U.S. uses Arsenic Trioxide for specific industrial applications such as marine timber, plywood roofing, railroad ties, utility poles. All use CCA-Treated Wood (Chromated Copper Arsenic),which uses Arsenic acid, that is produced from Arsenic Trioxide and is used as a pesticide and as stated above, for treating wood. High-quality arsenic is used in the military, solar cells, space, and telecommunication applications as well. Hardening ammunition is one of the uses for high quality Arsenic metal for the military. Arsenic metals also strengthens grids and posts in lead-acid storage batteries. Arsenic is one of the several metals used as an anti friction additive in babbitt metals (alloys that are used for bearings). Arsenic that has a purity of 99.9999% are used to produce gallium-arsenide (GaAs), indium-arsenide, and indium-gallium-arsenide semiconductors that are used in biomedical, communications, computers, electronics, and photovoltaic applications. Furthermore, arsenic compounds are used in fireworks, fertilizers, and glassmaking.
While Arsenic clearly has many uses, it is also a very dangerous and poisonous element. This goes for humans as well as other animals and the environment. When humans and other animals are exposed to arsenic in the short term it can cause burning and extreme irritation to the skin. Longer periods of exposure to arsenic are directly linked to various forms of cancer, changes in blood, the reproductive, lymphatic and nervous systems and skin pigmentation. When ingested or exposed to large amounts it can cause poisoning and death. Arsenic can be leaked from the mining process and can seep into the soil and nearby water sources and harm or kill off many plants and animals, negatively impacting biodiversity in the area.
Zijin Mountain, China
Before Zijin Mining moved into the Fujian Province in eastern China, the village of Bitain, others and the surrounding Tingjiang River region were beautiful, green, idyllic communities which thrived on fishing and the gold sand that occasionally washed up on the shores. While some residents of the area were apprehensive about the incoming mining operations, others were hopeful that Zijin Mining Company would provide jobs and stimulation to the region, which it did at first. That was back in the early 1990’s though and since then everyone who made money off of Zijin company shares or jobs has long since moved away, leaving those who have no options to fend for themselves against Zijin Mining’s pollution and corporate tendencies. Zijin was fully functional by 2000 with its first open pit gold mine. In 2010, one of Zijin’s most productive copper mines was found to have contaminated and acidified the Tingjiang river through ground seepage and effectively polluted the entire region with toxic chemicals including arsenic. Bitian has since been transformed into a dirty and dangerous place to live where even walking in the river will leave you with rashes and painful sores on your feet for days to come. Bitian and other villages surrounding Zijin mountain now have rates of cancer that are 3 to 10 times higher than the rest of China.
Humans were not the only ones affected by arsenic contamination in the area though. Since the contamination became more widespread all of the fish in the Ting river have died off, although none of the residents of Bitian village say they would eat anything or drink from the river anymore anyway. Along with the dead fish, all of the animals that rely on the river for water and sustenance have also been impacted. Also, villagers say that when the rain stirs up the river, it is easy to see the color of the river change to a reddish/brown due to all the polluting sediment sitting at the bottom.
Finding information on this issue and on mining in this specific region of China is very hard and (from what I discovered) this is most likely intentional by Zijin Mining and Chinese officials. According to villagers, the government ignores the complaints about contamination and insists that everything is normal and there is no significant contamination. The government acts this way because it has a direct and beneficial relationship with Zijin Mining. Since the company went public, government officials have bought into it and many of them even hold positions in the company. This makes environmental and human health protection very difficult due to the conflicting interests of Zijin and the Government versus the people residing on that land. As of recently not much has changed, Zijin is still making huge profits while the voices of the villagers seem to be having little to no effect.
Workers cleaning the Tingjiang River after the Zijin copper mine chemical spill.
Morocco, Moulouya River Basin
The Moulouya River Basin is located in north eastern Morocco in Africa. The Basin covers a surface area of 54,000 km^2 and is the largest river basin in North Africa. The river has a length of 600 km and supplies the entire region with freshwater. The river starts in the High Atlas Mountains and ends at the low-lying river mouth at the Mediterranean shoreline, close to the city of Saidia. The River basin also is located in the driest regions of Morocco. The average rainfall is 330 mm and the climate can be classified as semi-arid. This means that is has a warm temperate climate with winter precipitation. A major aspect of the river is the dam that is placed on the river, there to ensure a regional all-year water supply for agricultural purposes. The main agricultural areas can be found in the northeastern part of the basin, where the dammed up water can then be used for irrigation.
The Moulouya River basin also houses a mining region, which covers a surface area of 74,000 km^2. This area includes the Moulouya Kert, Islay, Kiss and Chott Tigri sub basins and a portion of the Bouarfa-Figuig zone. In this region, over 2.2 million people live there and are exposed to high concentrations of Arsenic because of the mining and smelting of ores that produce Arsenic as a by-product. The population that resides in the High Moulouya Valley, also known as the Upper Moulouya lead district, are exposed to high concentrations of Arsenic that have been leaching into the groundwater ever since the beginning of these mines in the early 20th century. The concentration in this high area of lakes and quarry pools range from 8.14-9.02 ph and mining residue sediments range from 65.61 200.03 ppm. The ZaYda mine and other mines have been abandoned in the recent decades without any rehabilitation whatsoever. Villages in the region have packed up and left to escape the high concentrations of Arsenic in the area. In the village of Aouli, only a dozen families have stayed behind and continue to live in their contaminated village. Along with the first dam that was mentioned earlier, a second dam has also been built along the river called Hassan II. This dam has efficiently been capturing Arsenic contaminated water, so that downstream surface waters are of average to excellent quality. Sediments on the other hand, remain very high, since they were contaminated before the construction of the dam. These sediments offer potential risk of contaminating entire aquatic ecosystems.
Even though the contamination of Arsenic is detrimental to the health of the population that lives there, these mines provided and still provide jobs for many people. This region of Morocco is also the second in exports of Arsenic and a top exporter to the U.S., along with China. This region of Morocco produces on average 7,000 metric tons of Arsenic a year. Much of the economy is dependent on the mining industry, meaning that the population there does not see the effects of Arsenic all that bad. They are happy to be able to make a living in general, so it does not matter all that much of the detrimental health effects to them or to the ecosystem they live in. To the citizens and government of Morocco, the Arsenic production has more benefits than disadvantages.
Abandoned lead mine on the Moulouya river
Ruston, Washington, United States
For a most of the 20th century up until 1985, Ruston, WA was the heart of the arsenic industry within the United States. The town sits on the edge of Commencement Bay (apart of Puget Sound), with Tacoma to the south and east and Point Defiance Park to the west. Ruston was used as the company town for employees and named after the owner of the production plant William Rust. This industry was able to thrive here due to the American Smelting and Refining Companies (ASARCO) smelter within the city, and provided 1300 jobs at its peak. The plant specialized in smelting copper, specifically inexpensive low-grade copper ores contaminated with arsenic from Montana, Idaho, Alaska, and the Philippines as well as Japan, Korea and areas within South America. Arsenic (as the trioxide As^2 O^3) acted as a byproduct that was able to be supplied to local industries including wood preservation, herbicides, and insecticides. From the mid-1970s until its closure, the Ruston ASARCO smelter was the only domestic producer of arsenic, with an output of roughly 10-18 thousand tons a year of arsenic trioxide during this time. Production of arsenic peaked during the 1940s and 1950s, and gradually declined up until its ultimate closure in 1985 due to push back from Ruston and Tacoma citizens that feared of the negative health effects that arsenic causes.
The ultimate closure of the plant was due to many concerns with the pollution that the high levels of arsenic and sulfur dioxide was causing. Citizens of the neighboring city of Tacoma complained about damage and death of livestock and plant life, as well as increased instances of breathing problems including asthma, emphysema, and lung and throat irritations particularly within children. As air concentrations remained high, as did concentrations of urinary arsenic in children. The plant was also known to cause acid rain to occur and continually the region’s soil is contaminated with arsenic as well as other toxic metals, causing areas to not support plant life and although not an immediate risk, exposure to arsenic within soil over an extended period of time is known to cause cancer, among the other issues including breathing problems.
Although it played a large part in the establishment of Ruston and Tacoma, the residents of these places are still dealing with the pollution the plants caused with arsenic pollutions still well above what the state defines as hazardous. However, many residents take pride in being able to trace their families lineage back to the beginnings of the plant and, and even though the smelter hasn’t existed for nearly 30 years and Ruston is no longer a company town, Ruston still maintains it’s own city government and is distinct from the culture of Tacoma. As well, the plant was key in developing Commencement Bay as a major port and economic hub that still plays a large role in the economy of Tacoma and Ruston.
The smokestack that was used for the smelter was once the largest structure on the West coast, raising 571 feet off the ground. Picture from early 20th century.
Heshan Village, Hunan Province, Shimen County, China
From the 1950’s until 2011, realgar (Ar^4 S^4), a type of arsenic sulfide mineral , was heavily produced in the area surrounding Heshan Village. Though the mines provided work for many, they were finally shut down in 2011 due to the harmful effects to the environment and people, caused from the mining. Realgar, which is toxic, has had many uses throughout China over the past few thousand years as . Most notably, it was part of an alcoholic drink, called realgar wine, which was drunk to fend off evil during the Dragon Boat Festival, that occurs in late summer every year. Though this practice died down in modern times because of science deeming arsenic toxic, it is still a part of their culture and their history.
The level of arsenic around Heshan in the 1990s was over 15 times the suggested amount that is deemed safe, as outlined by the Chinese Government. By 2010, 157 people had died due to cancer caused by the arsenic and another 191 had been diagnosed. Though the mines closed in 2011, runoff and dust still affect the and pollute the town, helping lead to 200 people being diagnosed with arsenic poisoning at a nearby hospital in 2015. The mining and runoff have also had drastic effects for the environment, with rice being impossible to grow due to the heavy concentration of arsenic and other crops dying after it raining, when airborne pollutants are brought down to the fields through the rain.
With Heshan being a village of only 1500, these numbers constitute a significant part of their population. The younger generations for the large part, having seen their parents sick or dead, and their environment ruined, have left Heshan. Those who contracted cancer have, for the large part stayed home, waiting to die, and unable to pay for the expensive chemotherapy they need to save their lives. Though the mines created jobs, the negative consequences that followed were not on par with the amount of jobs created. With many of the people who benefitted from the mines dying early from cancer caused by their toxic work environment.
Empty Tanks that were once used in realgar production. Heshan, China.
Conclusion
From the treating of wood to production of electronics, Arsenic, who’s extraction has been decreased in most countries around the world, is still being used heavily across the world. Countries such as the U.S. have stopped production altogether, while developing countries such as China and Morocco are extracting and producing a majority of the world’s supply. Arsenic, even though seen by most as poisonous, toxic, and related to death, is continuing to be extracted and used for many products and items. We have found ways to take this toxic mineral and use it to increase our production of certain technologies and improve our lives. Society has valued gold, copper, silver, etc high enough that the negative impacts of such production (arsenic) are for the most part ignored. Yet, Arsenic has its trade off when it comes to environmental issues and human health concerns. Obtaining Arsenic is dangerous for those working in the mines or plants because long exposure can lead to detrimental lasting effects and even death. Arsenic’s effect on the ecosystems it surrounds can be just as bad. Contamination of water and the sedimentary ground can lead to poisoning of the ecosystems that live there.
Comparing all of the locations that we have included, all but two today extract Arsenic. The U.S. stopped production and closed their last plant in 1985, but China and Morocco are extracting more Arsenic than ever before. Though China has closed some of their arsenic producing plants because of environmental issues, they are still the world’s largest producer and exporter of arsenic and in some areas, are working on creating better extraction methods and reducing the negative environmental impacts. The difference between the U.S. and these developing countries has to do with the economies of each, the US is very much established while the other developing countries rely on production and industry to grow, therefore eliminating arsenic (and arsenic byproduct) production in these countries is not feasible from their economic point of view.
References
“Arsenic – As.” lenntech.com. http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/as.htm, accessed February 27.
“Climate-Driven or Human-Induced: Indicating Severe Water Scarcity in the Moulouya River Basin (Morocco) (PDF Download Available).” 2017. ResearchGate, accessed February 27. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w4040959.
Chuanmin, Yang. “Toxic mine spill was only latest in long history of Chinese pollution.” theguardian.com. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/apr/14/toxic-mine-spill-chine se-pollution. Accessed February 27.
“Dirt Alert- Lead & Arsenic in the Soil.” www.tpchd.org http://www.tpchd.org/environment/healthy-environment/dirt-alert/ accessed February 27th.
Lee, Jason. “Arsenic pollution sows despair in Chinese cancer village.” reuters.com http://in.reuters.com/article/uk-china-environment-health-idINKBN0EY16S20140623, accessed Febraury 28.
“Mcs-2017-Arsen.pdf.” 2017, accessed February 27. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/mcs-2017-arsen.pdf.
Murcott, Susan. 2012. Arsenic Contamination in the World. IWA Publishing.
“myb1-2009-Arsen.pdf.” 2017, accessed February 27. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/myb1-2009-arsen.pdf.
“myb1-2015-Arsen.pdf.” 2017, accessed February 27. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/myb1-2015-arsen.pdf.
“Realgar.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realgar, accessed February 27.
Lloyd B. Tepper and Jeffrey H. Tepper. The Rise and Fall of the Tacoma Arsenic Industry. Society for Industrial Archaeological 2013. www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43958427.pdf, accessed February 27.
By Jack Kamysz, Henry Chapman, Matt Stevenson, and Aidan Mackie