This post was created by Emma Hay and Kurt Barbara.
Overview
The sedimentary rock limestone, generally is a combination of mineral calcite and grains, made up of various skeletal fragments such as coral, diatoms, peloids, intraclasts and foraminifera, but can vary depending on region location (5). For example, the limestone in Southeast Asia consists largely of calcite, calcium carbonate and dolomite. It’s coloring is either white or light grey with hints of yellow (4). It is extremely soluble in water of all levels of acidity which leads to its construction of interesting karst landscapes like caves, cavities, overhangs, bedrock and notches. When limestone metamorphosizes, it turns into marble, which increases its mass and durability of the structures it forms (1).
Limestone is a mineral that is found generally worldwide. Most mining sites are found between 30 degrees north latitude and 30 degrees south latitude (13). For example, Indiana Limestone has been one of the most important and sought after form of limestone in the world. Mining of it in the state began in 1827 and by 1900, 1/3 of the U.S. limestone mined came from Indiana (12). Limestone is primarily used for construction and in the building of many important structures. (11) Limestone is also used in the process of cement, glass, quicklime and marble. Some environmental impacts of mining limestone include negative effects on groundwater because of the formation of sinkholes and blockages to groundwater channels. Mining also has negative effects on surface level water since when water is pumped from limestone quarries, it seeps into natural surface level water sources such as rivers, marshes and streams. Limestone quarrying additionally affects on the air quality around quarry sites; explosives are used as well as loud drills which releases sediment into the air (10).
The extraction of limestone threaten the lives and ecosystems that depend upon karst formations to survive. Limestone caves are often less impacted than their surrounding areas by development and agriculture, cultivating safe spaces for biodiversity to flourish. Some karst caves have underground river systems that help to regulate the flow of water into main rivers as well as act as sanctuaries for freshwater flora and fauna. The caves within limestone hills are known to sustain bat populations which help regulate mosquito and moth communities, pollinate trees, and use their guano as a priceless fertilizer. They also serve to house cave racers, freshwater turtles, land snails and cave crickets (2). The extraction of limestone is one of the main threats to limestone area biodiversity (3). The massive habitat loss and important ecosystem services that are provided to our natural world will have negative effects on the surrounding environments. Limestone rich areas took a very long time to form, but once extorted, they cannot be replaced, and with them goes the entire ecosystem they support.
Perak, Malaysia
Perak, labeled the “World of Wonders”, is the 2nd largest state in Peninsular Malaysia. It’s name, which translates to ‘Silver’ in Bahasa Melayu because of the region’s large quantity of tin, is home to countless flora and fauna, historical Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu temples, beautiful wilderness attractions and massive limestone karst structures (some of which are over 6 million years old). Tourists come from around the world to this warm climate, joining local residents in hiking the beautiful waterfalls, picnicking and camping at the recreational parks, experiencing the inner workings of traditional practices and taking dips in the 5th warmest hot springs in the world. The local cuisine is famously known for their extraordinary Chinese, Halal and Malaysian dishes. Pau, Chinese coffee, tambun pomelo, hainanese chicken fried rice and tempoyak are a few of the most popular choices.
On average, 34,817 thousand tons of limestone are quarried in Malaysia every year (9). Limestone reserves are fairly abundant in Perak, Kedah, Perlis and Selangor, but this results in large amounts of unearthing and destruction. In 2013, Perak had the most number of quarries and was the biggest producer of cement in the country (8). To the many Buddhist and Hindu worshipers of Perak, these limestone karsts are sacred formations, hand carved by the gods. Because of this reason, many temples are built inside of caves with statues in side them and in the surrounding areas (7). These areas also have irreplaceable autonomies, biodiversity and beauty. As stated in the overview above, quarrying endangers numerous plants and animals specific to those areas. In Malaysia, limestone forests contain about 14% of the region’s plant species, 130 of which only grow in limestone areas (6). Additionally, the hills have value to residents in Perak for aesthetic and geo-touristic reasons. The state government and locals have even pushed for a conservation ban against the quarry miners in order to restrict their operation sites and impact away from visible main roads and highways. Limestone hills boost property value and also bring in a large amount of money from geo-tourism.
However, this practice does provide benefits to the livelihood and well being of the citizens in Perak. This industry supplies various jobs to miners, to processors and to transporters, and if it were to be stopped, many families would be left without an income. Additionally, the revenue that would be lost from the halting of quarrying would be very significant dip in state’s wealth. Although quarrying of limestone is a major contribution to the economy, the landscapes hold a greater importance in terms of scientific, spiritual and cultural values. It is crucial that we consider all aspects of mineral production and its impacts on surrounding areas, making sure that its benefits outweigh the costs.
Indianapolis, Indiana
My site of production is located in southwest corner of Indianapolis, Indiana, directly on the White River, near the Indianapolis International Airport and what was once a coal burning Indianapolis Power & Light energy plant. Sandwiched between the river and a major highway, the Hanson Aggregates-Harding Street Quarry is in a very very polluted area of town. There are low income neighborhoods on the other side of 465, the highway that wraps around the perimeter of the city.
Limestone has been historically important to Indiana, as mentioned previously. At one point, 1/3 of all of the United States’ limestone came from quarries in south central Indiana and this limestone went all over the country to be used in important buildings. Some notable buildings that have utilized Indiana Limestone include The Empire State Building, The Pentagon, Yankee Stadium, and 35 out of 50 state capitol buildings. (11)
Culturally, Indiana Limestone is very important to the area it comes from. People from Indiana frequently boast about the importance of Indiana Limestone in buildings in Washington D.C. and other important cities throughout America and how it came from nearby them. My grandparents, for example, live very close to some of the quarries that once produced some of the best limestone in the world. They tell me stories about how it affected their local communities and how even the now-defunct quarries serve a cultural purpose as they showed up in movies such as Breaking Away.
Comparison and Conclusion
When considering the mineral limestone, and its reserves and quarries situated across the world, we need to remember the importance of the various factors that create place. In Perak, Malaysia, limestone is significantly ingrained as a part of their local culture, nature and revenue. However, the extraction of it provides many positive effects on their economy, like jobs for example. In Indianapolis, Indiana, the significance of limestone products are built into the structure of the city and is mostly looked at in a positive point of view. However, the current extraction practices pollute heavily into the environment, and result in declining health in the surrounding areas.
When consuming all limestone products, it is necessary to examine the environmental impact of its extraction, processing, and transportation. Limestone extraction has critical effects on its surrounding areas, especially for areas where the rock itself is culturally significant such as Perak, Malaysia. In Indianapolis, Indiana, the extraction process requires a vast amount of fossil fuels to clear the mining site and excavate the extremely heavy slabs of stone that are cut in massive pieces. From there, the massive pieces are then delivered around the country, a process that requires powerful trucks that burn a significant amount of fossil fuels. In Malaysia, Limestone quarrying has a significant impact on tourism industry because as the limestone structures are destroyed and excavated, the ecological beauty of the region changes and becomes less attractive.
Situating materials to place, puts into perspective the origin and processes that are required to construct our built environment. We are actively alienated nowadays from our modern day materials, and it is important that we take the time and research natural resources. There is more to Limestone than the cement structures and marble countertops. We must consider where this material came from, what the environmental and economical impacts are and what key meanings it brings to people around the world.
Resources
(1) Boon-Kong, TAN. “Environmental Geology of Limestone in Malaysia.” Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, n.d. <http://www.irck.edu.cn/karst/igcp/igcp448/2002/3-2-7.pdf.>
Clements, Ruben, Sodhi Navjot S., Menno Schilthuizen, and Peter K. L. Ng.
(2)“Limestone Karsts of Southeast Asia: Imperiled Arks of Biodiversity.”
BioScience, September 1, 2006.
<https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/56/9/733/262911/Limestone-Karsts-of-Southeast-Asia-Imperiled-Arks.>
(3)“Extraction and Biodiversity in Limestone Areas.” Bird Life International, Fauna &
Flora International, IUCN, WWF, n.d.
<http://www.birdlife.org/sites/default/files/Extraction-and-Biodiversity-in-Limestone-Areas.pdf.>
(4)“Kinta Valley’s Limestone Hills and Caves.” Perak Tourism News, March 1, 2012.
<http://www.ipohecho.com.my/v2/2012/03/01/kinta-valleys-limestone-hills-and-caves/.>
(5)“Limestone.” Wikipedia, February 23, 2017.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone.>
(6)“Limestone Forests and Caves.” World Wide Fund for Nature, n.d <http://www.wwf.org.my/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests_main/the_malaysian_rainforest/types_of_forests/limestone_forests_and_caves/.>
(7)Muhammad, Ros, and Ibrahim Komoo. “The Kinta Valley Karst Landscape – a National
Heritage to Be Preserved,” May 2013.
<http://www.gsm.org.my/products/702001-100619-PDF.pdf.>
(8)Sia, Andrew. “A Case for Limestone Hills.” Press Reader, August 31, 2013.
<www.pressreader.com/malaysia/the-star-malaysia-star2/20130831/281487864014115.>
(9)Wu, John C. “THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF MALAYSIA.” USGS, July 2013.
<https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2013/myb3-2013-my.pdf.>
(10)“Environmental Hazards of Limestone Mining.” Accessed March 3, 2017. <http://education.seattlepi.com/environmental-hazards-limestone-mining-5608.html.>
(11)“Indiana Limestone.” Wikipedia, February 16, 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phptitle=Indiana_Limestone&oldid=765783770.>
(12)“Indiana Limestone.” Accessed March 3, 2017. <http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/powell/613webpage/NYCbuilding/IndianaLimestone/IndianaLimestone.htm.>
(13)“Limestone: Rock Uses, Formation, Composition, Pictures.” Accessed March 3, 2017. <http://geology.com/rocks/limestone.shtml.>