1) Describe an aspect of ancient Indian history that is likely to have continuing relevance in contemporary India. How might your time in India benefit from having some awareness of this period of Indian history?
In Chapter One John McLeod states that, “To many Westerners, India is first and foremost a land of religion. Whether Indians really are more religious than other people is open to debate, but their country is the home of several major faiths” (McLeod, 5). Now, despite if India is “foremost” a land of religion, it is undeniable the importance and diversity of religions that are present throughout India; while there is a diverse presence of religion in India, both Buddhism and Hinduism have their origins in the Subcontinent. Ancient Indian history marks the era that both hinduism(s) and buddhism first emerged (even though their respective religious development is an on-going process). Hinduism is said to have emerged from the ancient Arayan vedic texts, the Rig Veda and Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda all together form the Samhitas (collections). Yet, the vedic texts only form the foundations of Hinduism which has traversed onwards in a multiplicity of ways to form infinitely many hinduisms that are found in the world. One way that Hindu ideology has changed since the vedic texts is the addition of reincarnation and karma which were added during the second urbanization after 1000 BCE. The addition of rebirth and karma was so widly accepted “that the Brahmins accepted the Aranyakas and the Upanishads alongside the Samhitas and the Brahmanas as part of their scriptures, which are collectively called the Vedas. (The term Vedas is sometimes more specifically applied to the Samhitas)” (McLeod, 17). Those who authored the Aranyakas and Upanishads represent the first wave of religious speculation in Aryan culture. A second wave followed the first during the 6th and 4th Centuries BCE, that marked an era of completely different teachings. During this time the most popularized teacher Siddhartha Gautama, or the Buddha, who founded buddhism. Buddhist scriptures include stories about the biography and teachings of Buddha. Yet, McLeod is sceptical of the authenticity of these scriptures, and even states that it is not certain when Buddha lived. Regardless of when and what Buddha taught, his teachings are still in practice today and they find their origins at around 483 BCE.
My time in India will benefit from having awareness of this period of Indian history because it contextualizes the rich religious history and importance in India. By being informed of the ancient importance and emergence of religion in India, I am better able to understand the significance of religion in contemporary Indian society.
2) Describe an aspect of Mughal-era India that is likely to have continuing relevance in contemporary India. How might your time in India benefit from having some awareness of this period of Indian history?
The Mughal-era in India is full of incredibly rich history. It marks the time that Islam was first introduced to the subcontinent, it was also a time of conquest and war and lavish emperors and kings. One aspect of Mughal-era India that has a very obvious importance in contemporary India is Mughal-era art and architecture. The emperor Akbar, “Sought to legitimize his rulership with what has been called a Mughal ‘dynastic ideology.’ This held that the emperor, his ancestors, and his descendants were particularly close to God, who had both given them special knowledge of religious truth and chosen them to govern. To reinforce the dynastic ideology, the emperor was glorified as never before” (McLeod, 51). Akbar invested heavily on architects, poets, dancers, and musicians who blended Iranian, Indian, European, Muslim, and Hindu styles to create an artistic era that is distinct. Akbar ignored “the orthodox Muslim view that portraiture is a sinful attempt to imitate God’s creativity” (McLeod, 51). Akbar’s son Jahangir, is best known for his involvement of advancing Mughal artistic style. Jahangir and his favorite wife, Nur Jahan were particularly invested in painting. They both encouraged artists to “experiment,” thus creating a “unique” Mughal styles, which is “one of the great classical schools of art, and its models— a blend of Iranian, Hindu, and European traditions— were followed in India through the nineteenth century” (McLeod, 53). Shah Jahan continued his father, and grandfather’s legacy as emperor, however, his focus was on architecture. Shah Jahan return the Mughal empire to refocus its importance on Islam; Shah Jahan’s artistic projects meld together his artistic eye with his Muslim faith. Shah Jahan commemorated his beloved Mumtaz Mahall’s death with the most beautiful building in the world, the Taj Mahal at Agra.
Learning about Mughal era history allowed me to learn more about Mughal era art and architecture. Mughal era art and architecture are iconic aspects to India-both in historical and contemporary contexts, as most of these buildings and paintings are still around today.
3) Describe an aspect of British-era India that is likely to have continuing relevance in contemporary India. How might your time in India benefit from having some awareness of this period of Indian history?
The British colonialist invasion of India and establishment of the East India Trading co. and British rule marks a tumultuous time in India. An aspect of British-era India that has a continuing relevance in contemporary India is the use of the English Language, and the effect of societal reforms. Educated Indians spoke learned English, knowledge of English served as a way to unite educated Indians and connect them to the western world. During this time there was also societal reform, that “ironed out many of the regional and caste variations that had existed within Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism” (McLeod, 88). Arguably, rather than embracing the cultural complexity and richness of Indian beliefs, religion and multiplicities of cultural practices, these reforms aimed to make Indians universal and unified under one practice. The multiplicities of practice found within Hinduism were challenged and forced to be simplified. McLeod explains, “Improved communications helped the reformers spread their message, but also brought them into conflict with one another. They often disagreed as to which practices and beliefs were excrescences and which were the essentials of their religions” (88).
English is still recognized as the language of education within most of India, and the practice of using English will be relevant during the time that we are in India, especially in Delhi and Varanasi, but also in Chennai. This section that focuses on British-era India helps explain why English is used and the colonialist implications of the use of language are still relevant in contemporary India. Interestingly, McLeod is so bold to use the outdated and insensitive old spellings of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras and then parenthetically states, “These are now officially called Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai, respectively, but the older English names are retained in this book” (McLeod, 7).
4) Describe an aspect of the struggle for national independence that is likely to have continuing relevance in contemporary India. How might your time in India benefit from having some awareness of this period of Indian history?
One aspect of the struggle for independence that has a lasting relevance in contemporary India is the division of Pakistan and the struggle between Muslim and Hindu Indians. Jinnah began speaking of a Pakistan that would be independent, and “in August 1946 called on Muslims to do whatever was necessary to obtain it” (McLeod, 125). In Kolkata street battles erupted resulting the casualties of over 4,000 people, mostly muslims. In East Bengal, where muslims were the majority of people, and Bihar, where they were the minority, violence was especially severe. In the spring of 1947, “Nehru informed Mountbatten that Congress would accept an independent Pakistan, so long as it did not include territories with non-Muslim majorities” (McLeod, 126). Pakistan was established as an Independent nation on August 14, 1947 and India established its independence the next day.
The divide between India and Pakistan is still hostile even within contemporary society. And the struggle for both nations independence as well as the religious violence is still relevant even today.
5) Describe an aspect of the Nehru-Gandhi dynastic period that is likely to have continuing relevance in contemporary India. How might your time in India benefit from having some awareness of this period of Indian history?
In 1980, a new Indian national party formed, the Bharatiya Janata Party or Indian People’s Party. McLeod explains, “The BJP’s Hindu nationalist principles are summed up by the word Hindutva , or Hinduness. The party’s goal is to transform India into a world power, industrialized, and militarily strong. This requires national unity, which according to the BJP can only come from India’s shared Hindu culture” (170). Throughout its history, the BJP has been known for its harshness on Muslims, and has been complicit with violence that has been directed to Muslims. The establishment and history of the BJP is especially relevant to contemporary India because the current Prime Minister Narendra Damodardas Modi who is a leader of the BJP party and has been criticized for being involved with anti-islamic violent movements.