In the conclusion to his book Ecological Imperialism, Alfred W. Crosby likens the human race to an army in its progression across the globe. The Aboriginal Australians, Native Americans, and Maori peoples of New Zealand were the “shock troops”or foot soldiers, whereas the later European arrivals comprised the full army with tanks and heavy machinery. In the subtext of this metaphor lies the assumption that the goal of both the indigenous peoples and the European peoples was to conquer and invade. That there is little difference between the two migrations besides timing and technology. That all humanity is ultimately a destructive force against the environment.
It is certainly no secret that human beings are in the process of destroying the great diversity of Earth’s flora and fauna. From the introduction of foreign species into delicate ecosystems to the carbon dioxide emissions that hasten global climate change, modern consumerist society is obliterating our world. In Crosby’s words, “swift growth in the numbers of those dependent on the productivity of Neo-European soils remind us that profits are finite.” In other words, humanity will eventually be unable to sustain itself.
But implicating all races and all cultures equally in this destruction by saying that we are all a part of the same “army” seems problematic considering the vast differences between indigenous and European philosophies. Perhaps it is an overgeneralization to say that while Europeans have historically viewed new landscapes as places to exploit and conquer, indigenous peoples tend towards a more sustainable relationship with nature. Nevertheless, it is worth considering how some indigenous voices consider nature in their own way.
One of the ways that indigenous peoples respect their environment is through totems. We learned a lot about this while on a “Dreaming” tour of The Rocks, which is a section of Sydney close to the Sydney Harbour Bridge. In the way our tour guide, Margret, pointed out a natural “garage workspace” site beneath the Harbor Bridge and showed us certain healing plants growing between apartment buildings, we got to see a side of Sydney that would have otherwise gone unnoticed. Margret, an elder from the Dunghutti language group, told us that her people have several totems with stories (akin to Biblical stories) that are connected to plants, animals, fish, reptiles, birds, and seasonal climates. Each person holds custodianship of their totems, which they are forbidden to eat or destroy. That way, no individual has unrestricted access to the land’s resources. The totem system demands that people have a great understanding of the interconnectedness of their landscape. Aunty Margret told us that if her totem was a certain kind of plant, she would need to know how that plant was pollinated, what animals depended on it, and other information in order to better protect the totem. Knowing so intimately where one’s resources come from speaks to a great respect for the land, which leads to a certain care for how resources are used.
Given such views it seems wrong to blame both Europeans and Aboriginal peoples equally for “ecological imperialism.” However, in the film The Future Eaters, made by Tim Flannery, the idea that Aboriginal peoples live in near-perfect harmony with their environment is called into question. Like Crosby, Flannery views Aboriginal peoples as invasive conquerors who preceded European settlers. He suggests that the first wave of peoples also wreaked havoc on the ecosystems they encountered. His film supports the idea that Aboriginal Australian people actually caused mass extinctions of plants and animals just as European/Western peoples have. According to Flannery, the first Aboriginal inhabitants came from the northern islands of Indonesia in a relatively large group. In his film, Flannery examines how at the time of the arrival of these early humans, the continent of Australians was inhabited with megafauna, which is a term encompassing creatures from the giant sloth to over 20 types of kangaroo. Shortly after humans arrived, most of the megafauna went extinct. This seems in direct opposition to the belief that Aboriginal peoples have always been in harmony with nature.
However, Flannery himself acknowledges that even after this initial destruction of the ecosystem, the indigenous people were eventually able to stabilize their environment. One of our program lecturers brought our attention to the fact that many species of megafauna were actually going extinct before humans even arrived in Australia. He argues that the extinction of Australian megafauna actually coincides more with climate change. Flannery’s belief in the absolute certainty of his argument despite its flaws comes through strongly in the film. As someone in the room quipped after watching The Future Eaters: “I wish I were as sure of anything as Tim Flannery is about his argument.” All this brings us back to the idea that thinking of Aboriginal peoples as destructive invaders may not be entirely fair.
by Jess Kostka